of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained. Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour, because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts, which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract.
17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.–If a large quantity of flour must be bought at one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases, it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it, provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of both very well.
18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.–Flour is put on the market in various grades, and is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality, is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers’_; and the next, _second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called _red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used considerably for the making of paste.
The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance, because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread. Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of good flour and should buy accordingly.
19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark, chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality. The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour, when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty. When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is characteristic of flour.
The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached.
20. CARE OF FLOUR.–There is considerable economy in buying flour in large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured, it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should be returned to the dealer.
YEAST
21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.–How yeast came to be discovered is not definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was, it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued study and observation have brought to light enough information to show that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture.
22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant, namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast grows very rapidly and produces fermentation.
The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or _carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the three results of the action of the ferment.
23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic, glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active that it is not noticeable.
24. Commercial Yeast.–When yeast plants are deprived of water and food, they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese, canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers’ vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure, unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the well-known process of “setting” a sponge is to obtain a large number of yeast plants from a few.
Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms–_moist_ and _dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food.
25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and has no odor except that of yeast.
Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from manufacturers or dealers.
26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time, facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these processes, a smaller quantity is required.
27. Liquid Yeast.–Some housewives are so situated that they find it difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves. To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount. Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks.
More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may be retained for the next baking.
28. Quality of Yeast.–Of equal importance with the quality of flour is the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course, accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition, it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted, the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast, whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that a fresh supply should be prepared.
YEAST AIDS
29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be mashed and added to it.
MILK AND FAT IN BREAD
30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread. While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making. Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color than that of bread in which water is used as liquid.
31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast. Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread.
PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS
32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3 cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about one-third as much liquid as flour.
The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread.
UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
33. Necessary Equipment.–Not many utensils are required for bread making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_; measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread, pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment mentioned, a molding board of suitable size.
The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3 1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than others, the baking will then be more uniform.
34. Convenient Equipment.–While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course, often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread, as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly.
A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching a wire netting over a wooden frame.
* * * * *
BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES
ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING
35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course, skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery. Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well, before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize good wheat bread.
36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat. The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that should not be overlooked.
Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually spoken of as the “bloom” of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut surface of the loaf.
The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right, wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite “sheen,” which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to the light.
The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel.
* * * * *
MAKING THE DOUGH
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS
37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together, and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast, they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added, be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast.
COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS
38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment, they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process; whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired. The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as shown in Fig. 3.
39. Long Process.–By the long process, there are two ways of combining the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_.
[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked.
41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked.
The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method.
42. Quick Process.–In the quick process of combining bread ingredients, there are also two methods of procedure–the _sponge method_ and the _straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat, liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to rise sufficiently, bake them.
44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less. It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH
45. Purpose of Rising.–Rising is an important part of the process of bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been placed in the oven.
46. Temperature for Rising.–As has been mentioned, the best results are obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86 degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of hot water.
[Illustration: Fig. 4]
47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to 105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired.
48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about 90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly.
[Illustration: Fig. 5]
49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees.
In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to soften completely before the next kneading is begun.
[Illustration: Fig. 6]
50. Time Required for Rising.–No definite rule can be given for the length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly. Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is entirely full.
KNEADING THE DOUGH
[Illustration: Fig. 7]
51. Purpose of Kneading.–As has been pointed out, it is necessary to knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process.
[Illustration: Fig. 8]
[Illustration: Fig. 9]
52. Kneading Motions.–Several motions are involved in the kneading of bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8, take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10, push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down.
[Illustration: Fig. 10]
To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to be softened.
SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES
53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed, it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked.
[Illustration: Fig. 11]
54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose, and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf, and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11.
[Illustration: Fig. 12]
55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after it has risen–that is, as high at each end as in the middle–the shaped dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig. 13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13]
BAKING THE BREAD
56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.–The various processes in the making of bread that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done, the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and then toasted.
57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.–In baking bread, it is necessary first to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425 degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400 degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin to brown in about 15 minutes.
[Illustration: Fig. 14]
[Illustration: Fig. 15]
58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15 shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into the oven.
Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done.
59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.–The time required for baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1 hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should proceed rather slowly.
[Illustration: Fig. 16]
To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position. Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides of the pan.
[Illustration: Fig. 17]
60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.–As soon as the bread has baked sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans, and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm, because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not keep so well.
After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine, so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried every 2 or 3 days.
SCORING BREAD
61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.–By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread, as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation.
SCORE CARD
External Appearance: PER CENT. Shape…………………………… 5 Size……………………………. 2 Crust:
Shade…………………………. 2 Uniformity of Color…………….. 2 Character……………………… 2 Depth………………………. 2–8 Lightness………………………… 20 Internal Appearance:
Even distribution of gas…………. 10 Moisture………………………… 5 Elasticity………………………. 5 Color………………………….. 15 Flavor…………………………… 30 —
Total……………………….. 100
62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.–A study of the score card will reveal that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor. To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the bread scores.
63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5, should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig. 15 would fall below perfect.
The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against, for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already mentioned would score high with regard to size.
The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut, the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score so high.
64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too light, the holes will be large and coarse.
65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes, which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives 5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The _elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic, a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains. Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score 15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading.
66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points. To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may receive a perfect score.
USE OF THE BREAD MIXER
67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife.
68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients and the method that is followed.
In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted. The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished.
Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last rising and before they are placed in the pans.
SERVING BREAD
69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not be amiss.
As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut.
Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed between the folds of each person’s napkin before they are seated at the table.
Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist and soggy.
* * * * *
RECIPES
BREAD RECIPES
70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used, there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white flour–but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various ingredients used in the making of bread.
71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply.
The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance.
The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked. Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been mentioned.
The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When, in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily acquired with practice in bread making.
72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal, nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all of them.
73. WHITE BREAD.–Bread made from white flour, which is commonly referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be increased proportionately.
WHITE BREAD–LONG PROCESS
(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
2 Tb. fat
2 Tb. sugar
1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast 1 Tb. salt
1 qt. lukewarm liquid
3 qt. flour
1 c. flour additional for kneading
Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded, shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them.
Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may be followed.
WHITE BREAD–QUICK PROCESS
(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves)
2 Tb. fat
2 Tb. sugar
1 Tb. salt
2 cakes compressed yeast
1 qt. lukewarm liquid
3 qt. flour
1 c. flour additional for kneading
Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two. However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking.
74. Whole-Wheat Bread.–Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe, whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for bread made of the finer flours.
WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD–QUICK PROCESS
(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves)
3 Tb. fat
1/4 c. brown sugar
1 Tb. salt
1 cake compressed yeast
3 c. lukewarm liquid
8 c. whole-wheat flour
1 c. white flour for kneading
Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed according to the directions previously given for making bread by the quick process.
The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used.
75. Graham Bread.–To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour. The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process, although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half the amount of yeast.
GRAHAM BREAD
(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
2 Tb. fat
1/4 c. brown sugar
2 tsp. salt
1 cake compressed yeast
2 c. lukewarm liquid
2 c. white flour
3 c. graham flour
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let rise, and bake.
A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced.
76. Graham Bread With Nuts.–To increase the food value of graham bread, nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the quantity of yeast must be reduced.
GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS
(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
1 cake compressed yeast
2 c. lukewarm liquid
1/4 c. molasses
2 Tb. fat
1 Tb. salt
2 c. white flour
4 c. graham flour
1-1/2 c. chopped nuts
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more, according to the size of the loaves.
77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.–A very delicious whole-wheat bread is produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used, but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased.
WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD
(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves)
1 yeast cake
2 c. lukewarm liquid
2 Tb. fat
1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates 2 tsp. salt
6 c. whole-wheat flour
1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates 1 c. white flour for kneading
Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour, depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans, proceed with the baking.
78. BRAN BREAD.–Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food.
BRAN BREAD
(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
2 c. milk
6 Tb. molasses
1-1/2 tsp. salt
1/2 yeast cake
1/4 c. lukewarm water
2 c. white flour
4 c. graham flour
1 c. sterilized bran
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake in a hot oven.
79. RYE BREAD.–Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy. When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore, in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for the long process.
RYE BREAD
(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
2 Tb. fat
1 Tb. salt
2 Tb. sugar
1 cake compressed yeast
3 c. lukewarm liquid
6 c. rye flour
4 c. white flour
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the bread that is very satisfactory.
80. Corn Bread.–Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value, because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing the quantity of yeast.
CORN BREAD
(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
1 yeast cake
2 c. lukewarm liquid
2 tsp. salt
1 Tb. sugar
2 Tb. fat
4-1/2 c. white flour
2 c. corn meal
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve. Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt, the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes.
81. Rice Bread.–Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist longer than bread in which they are not used.
RICE BREAD
(Sufficient for Three Loaves)
1/2 c. uncooked rice
1-1/2 c. water
1 Tb. salt
1 Tb. sugar
1 Tb. fat
1/2 yeast cake
1 c. lukewarm liquid
6 c. white flour
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes.
82. SALT-RISING BREAD.–Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this precaution rather than to any other cause.
SALT-RISING BREAD
(Sufficient for Two Loaves)
1 c. fresh milk
1/4 c. corn meal
1 tsp. salt
2 tsp. sugar
2 c. lukewarm water
7 c. white flour
1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight, when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in pans, let it rise again, and bake.
RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS
83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs, fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves, as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the edges will not touch when they are baking.
[Illustration: Fig. 18]
So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has been attained.
84. Parker House Rolls.–Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that includes gravy or fat meat.
PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
1 cake compressed yeast
1 pt. lukewarm milk
4 Tb. fat
2 Tb. sugar
1 tsp. salt
3 pt. white flour
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter; mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration: Fig. 19]
85. Dinner Rolls.–As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe, dinner rolls are very palatable.
DINNER ROLLS
(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls)
1 cake compressed yeast
1 c. lukewarm milk
2 Tb. sugar
2 Tb. fat
1 tsp. salt
3 c. white flour
1 egg white
1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
[Illustration: Fig. 20]
Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat, salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.–If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired, luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory:
LUNCHEON ROLLS
(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls)
1 cake compressed yeast
1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk
2 Tb. sugar
2 Tb. fat
1 tsp. salt
4 c. white flour
1 egg white
1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls. Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter, and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.–Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked they have a crust that adds to their palatableness.
WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS
(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls)
1 pt. lukewarm milk
1 cake compressed yeast
1 tsp. salt
3 Tb. sugar
4 Tb. fat
2 c. white flour
4 c. whole-wheat flour
1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake, salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15 to 20 minutes.
88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.–Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious. Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely.
GRAHAM NUT BUNS
(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns)
1 cake compressed yeast
2 c. lukewarm milk
4 Tb. brown sugar
2 tsp. salt
2 Tb. fat
2-1/2 c. white flour
1 egg
1 c. chopped nuts
3-1/2 c. graham flour
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar, salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.–Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows:
NUT OR FRUIT BUNS
(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns)
4 Tb. sugar
1 Tb. fat
1 tsp. salt
1 cake compressed yeast
1 c. lukewarm milk
3 c. white flour
3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour. Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven. Bake for about 15 minutes.
90. SWEET BUNS.–Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend variety to the usual kind of bun.
SWEET BUNS
(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns)
1 cake compressed yeast
1 c. lukewarm scalded milk
1/4 c. sugar
2 Tb. fat 1 tsp.
1 tsp. salt
3-1/2 c. white flour
2 eggs
1 tsp. lemon extract
1 c. white flour additional for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise, and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
[Illustration: Fig. 21]
91. COFFEE CAKE.–When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with the dough.
COFFEE CAKE
(Sufficient for One Cake)
1 cake compressed yeast
1/2 c. lukewarm milk
1 Tb. sugar
1/2 tsp. salt
2 c. white flour
1 egg
2 Tb. fat
1/4 c. brown sugar
1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt. Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light. Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with 3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15 minutes in a moderately hot oven.
[Illustration: Fig. 22]
[Illustration: Fig. 23]
92. CINNAMON ROLLS.–To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it 1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2 cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light, as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes.
TOAST
93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat. To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist. Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired.
94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast. Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This device has become a rather common household article where electricity is used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the burned portion.
95. MILK TOAST.–Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose if desired.
96. FRENCH TOAST.–Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove very satisfactory.
FRENCH TOAST
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)
1 egg
1 c. milk
2 tsp. sugar
8 slices of bread
1/2 tsp. salt
Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and sauté it until the under side is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup or jelly.
LEFT-OVER BREAD
97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and various entrées. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used for these purposes.
98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches, or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones. Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are put into jars or cans.
It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form. For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes; for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes; for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes, and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table.
* * * * *
BREAD
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making.
(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made?
(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of bread?
(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated?
(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it?
(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth? (_c_) What temperature is best for its growth?
(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does this play in bread making?
(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making?
(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard it?
(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for making a loaf of bread.
(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making? (_b_) the quick process?
(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough?
(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently?
(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded?
(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven?
(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread?
(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer?
(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking rolls and bread?
(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits.
(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you have scored it.
* * * * *
HOT BREADS
* * * * *
REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS
HOT BREADS IN THE DIET
1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs, sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods.
PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS
2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery, as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that are formed.
In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product. No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance, in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used, unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so it is with all the materials used for hot breads.
The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly.
In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the principles underlying the process of baking.
* * * * *
LEAVENING AGENTS
CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS
3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials, including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added. With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best quality that can be obtained.
As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures.
PHYSICAL LEAVENING
4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven, the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached 338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the more opportunity will the gas have to expand.
5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be folded in.
6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken. Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an aerated mixture.
CHEMICAL LEAVENING
7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to chemical leavening agents.
8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made