lung, pulmonary bone, osseous hair, hirsute tearful, lachrymose early, primitive sweet, dulcet, sweet, saccharine young, juvenile bloody, sanguinary deadly, mortal red, florid bank, riparian hard, arduous wound, vulnerable written, graphic spotless, immaculate sell, mercenary son, filial salt, saline meal, farinaceous wood, ligneous wood, sylvan cloud, nebulous glass, vitreous milk, lacteal water, aquatic stone, lapidary gold, aureous silver, argent iron, ferric honey, mellifluous loving, amatory loving, erotic loving, amiable wedded, hymeneal plow, arable priestly, sacerdotal arrow, sagittal wholesome, salubrious warlike, bellicose timely, temporary fiery, igneous ring, annular soap, saponaceous nestling, nidulant snore, stertorous window, fenestral twilight, crepuscular soot, fuliginous hunter, venatorial
The fact that English is a double-barreled language, and that of parallel terms one is likely to be native and the other classic, is interesting in itself. Our lists of parallels, however, though (with the exception of List B) they are arranged to bring out this duality of origin, have other and more vital uses as material for exercises. For after all it matters little whether we know where a word comes from, provided we know thoroughly the meaning and implications of the word itself. The lists already given and those to follow show the more important words actually yoked as parallels. Your task must be to ascertain the differences in import between the words thus joined.
EXERCISE – Parallels
Study the discriminations between the members of the following pairs. At each blank in the illustrative sentences insert the appropriate word.
Rise, ascend. _Rise_ is the more general term, but it expresses less than _ascend_ in degree or stateliness. “He had foretold to them that he would ____ into heaven.” “Do not ____ from your seat.” “The diver slowly ____ to the surface.” “The travelers ____ the mountain.”
Study the discriminations between the members of the following pairs. Determine whether the words are correctly used in the illustrative sentences. (Some are; some are not.)
_Truth_ has to do with the accuracy of the statement, of the facts; _veracity_ with the intention of the person to say nothing false. “I cannot vouch for the veracity of the story, but I can for the truth of the teller.” “Though he is not a man of veracity, I believe he is now speaking the truth.” “Veracity, crushed to earth, will rise again.”
With the help of the dictionary discriminate between the members of the following pairs. Determine whether the words are correctly used in the illustrative sentences. (Some are; some are not.)
In the following list only the native member of each pair is given. Determine what the classic member is, and frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the two words. (Make a conscientious effort to find the classic member by means of its parallelism with the native. If, and after, you definitely fail in any instance to find it, obtain a clue to it through study of the words in List G. Every pair in that list is clearly suggestive of one or more pairs in this list.)
nightly,– motherly,–
breadth,– buy,–
hot,– fall,–
thought,– sleeplessness,–
fatherly,– yearly,–
outer,– depth,–
womanly,– speech,–
Discriminate between the members of each of the following pairs, and frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the two words.
freedom, liberty well, cistern
freedom, independence give, donate free, acquit happen, occur
door, portal lessen, abate
begin, commence lessen, diminish behead, decapitate forefathers, ancestors belief, credence friend, acquaintance belief, credulity lead, conduct
swear, vow end, finish
curse, imprecate end, complete curse, anathema end, terminate
die, expire warn, admonish
die, perish warn, caution
die, succumb rich, affluent
lively, vivacious wealthy, opulent walk, ambulate help, assistance
leave, depart help, succor
leave, abandon answer, reply
go with, accompany find out, ascertain go before, precede take, appropriate hasten, accelerate shrewd, astute
quicken, accelerate breathe, respire speed, celerity busy, industrious
hatred, animadversion growing, crescent fearful, timorous grow, increase
Cover with a piece of paper the classic (right-hand) members of the following pairs, and if possible ascertain what they are by studying the native members. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of both words in each pair.
neighborhood, vicinity hang, impend hang, suspend rash, impetuous flood, inundation drunk, intoxicated harmful, injurious tool, instrument mind, intellect mad, insane birth, nativity sail, navigate sailor, mariner ship, vessel lying, mendacious upright, erect early, premature upright, vertical first, primary shake, vibrate raise, elevate swing, oscillate lift, elevate leaves, foliage greet, salute beg, importune choose, select beggar, mendicant choose, elect smell, odor
same, identical sink, submerge name, nominate dip, immerse follow, pursue room, apartment follow, succeed see, perceive teach, instruct see, inspect teach, inculcate sight, visibility teacher, pedagogue sight, vision tiresome, tedious sight, spectacle empty, vacant glasses, spectacles farewell, valediction
Cover with a piece of paper the native (left-hand) members of the following pairs, and if possible ascertain what they are by studying the classic members. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of both words in each pair.
skin, cuticle thunder, fulminate skin, integument sleep-walking, somnambulism hide, epidermis bird, ornithology fleshly, carnal bird, aviary hearer, auditor bee, apiary snake, serpent bending, flexible heap, aggregation wrinkle, corrugation laugh, cachinnation slow, dilatory laughable, risible lime, calcimine fear, trepidation coal, lignite live, exist man, anthropology bridal, nuptial winter, hibernate wed, marry gap, hiatus
husband/wife, spouse right, ethical shore, littoral showy, ostentatious forswear, perjure spelling, orthography steal, peculate time, chronology steal, embezzle handbook, manual lockjaw, tetanus hole, cavity mistake, error dig, excavate mistake, erratum boil, tumor wink, nictation tickle, titillate blessing, benediction dry, desiccated wet, humid warm, tepid
flirt, coquet forgetfulness, oblivion fiddle, violin sky, firmament sky, empyrean flatter, compliment flee, abscond flight, fugitive forbid, prohibit hinder, impede hold, contain
For each of the following pairs frame a sentence which shall contain one of the members. Can the other member be substituted without affecting the meaning of the sentence? Read the discrimination of _Height-altitude_ in EXERCISE – Parallels. Ask yourself similar questions to bring out the distinction between the two words you are considering.
threat, menace call, summon
talk, commune cleanse, purify short, terse short, concise
better, ameliorate lie, recline new, novel straight, parallel lawful, legitimate law, litigation law, jurisprudence flash, coruscate late, tardy watch, chronometer foretell, prognosticate king, emperor winding, sinuous hint, insinuate burn, incinerate fire, incendiarism bind, constrict crab, crustacean fowls, poultry lean, incline
flat, level flat, vapid
sharpness, acerbity sharpness, acrimony shepherd, pastor word, vocable
choke, suffocate stifle, suffocate clothes, raiment witness, spectator beat, pulsate mournful, melancholy beginning, incipient drink, imbibe light, illuminate hall, corridor stair, escalator anger, indignation fight, combat sleight-of-hand, prestidigitation build, construct tree, arbor
ask, interrogate wench, virgin frisk, caper fill, replenish
water, irrigate silly, foolish coming, advent feeling, sentiment old, antiquated forerunner, precursor sew, embroider unload, exonerate grave, sepulcher readable, legible tell, narrate kiss, osculate
nose, proboscis striking, percussion green, verdant stroke, concussion grass, verdure bowman, archer
drive, propel greed, avarice book, volume stingy, parsimonious warrior, belligerent bath, ablution owner, proprietor wrong, incorrect bow, obeisance top, summit
kneel, genuflection food, nutrition work, occupation seize, apprehend shut, close field, agrarian
Turn back to Lists A, B, C, D, E, and F. Discriminate between the members of each pair contained in these lists. Frame sentences to illustrate the correct use of the words.
VII
SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (1)
In considering pairs we have, without using the word, been studying synonyms. For most pairs are synonyms (or in some instances antonyms) that hunt in couples. We must now deal with synonyms, and incidentally antonyms, as they associate themselves in larger groups.
A vocabulary is impoverished. Why? Nine times in ten, because of a disregard of synonyms. Listen to the talk of the average person. Whatever is pleasing is _fine_ or _nice_ or _all to the good_; whatever is displeasing is _bum_ or _awful_ or _a fright_. Life is reflected, not as noble and complex, but as mean and meager. Out of such stereotyped utterance only the general idea emerges. The precise meaning is lazily or incompetently left to the hearer to imagine. The precise meaning? There is none. A person who does not take the trouble to speak clearly has not taken the trouble to think clearly.
But the master of synonyms expresses, instead of general, hazy, commonplace conceptions, the subtlest shadings of thought and feeling. He has so trained himself that he selects, it may be unconsciously, from a throng of possible words. One word may be strong, another weak. One may be broad, another narrow. One may present an alternative in meanings, another permit no liberty of choice. One may be suggestive, another literal or colorless. One may penetrate to the core of the idea, another strike only in the environs. With these possibilities the master of synonyms reckons. He must have the right word. He chooses it, not at haphazard, but in conformity with a definite purpose.
For synonyms are not words that have the same meaning. They are words that have similar meanings. They may be compared to circles that overlap but do not coincide. Each embraces a common area, but each embraces also an area peculiar to itself. Though many words cluster about a given idea, rarely if ever are even two of these words entirely equivalent to each other. In scope, in suggestion, in emotional nuance, in special usage, or what not, is sure to lurk some denial of perfect correspondence. And of synonyms, so of antonyms. Antonyms are words opposite in meaning; but the opposition, for the same reasons as the likeness, is seldom or never absolute.
In your study of synonyms you will find most of the dictionaries previously named of great help. You may also profitably consult the following books of synonyms (heavy, scholastic works not suited for ordinary use are omitted):
Edith B. Ordway: _Synonyms and Antonyms_. A compact, practical volume, with antonyms (in italics for contrast) immediately following synonyms.
Louis A. Flemming: _Putnam’s Word Book_. A book of the ordinarily used synonyms of words, with antonyms after some of them, and with lists of associated words wherever these are likely to be useful.
Samuel Fallows: _100,000 Synonyms and Antonyms_. A handy little volume, with useful lists of various kinds in appendices.
Richard Soule: _Dictionary of English Synonyms_ [revised and enlarged by George H. Howison]. A much larger and more expensive book than the others, and less practical for ordinary use, but fuller in treatment of material, with words of more than one meaning carefully divided into their various senses.
George Crabb: _English Synonyms_. A standard volume for over 100 years. Has close distinctions, but is somewhat scholarly for ordinary use. Revised edition of 1917, omitting illustrative quotations from literature, not so good as editions before that date.
James C. Fernald: _English Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions_. A pleasing book to read, with much information about the use of words and their shades of meaning (with exercises), also with proper prepositions to follow words. Material taken from the _Standard Dictionary_.
Peter Mark Roget: _Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases_. Issued in many editions and revisions. Words grouped under general ideas. An excellent book for serious and laborious study, but not for quick use.
The best principle for the extension of one’s mastery of synonyms is the principle already used over and over in this book–that of proceeding from the known to the unknown. It is the fundamental principle, indeed, of any kind of successful learning. We should build on what we have, fit each new piece of material into the structure already erected. But normally it is our ill fortune to learn through chance rather than through system. We perceive elucidation here, draw an inference there. These isolated fragments of knowledge may mislead rather than inform us.
The principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown may be applied to synonyms in various ways. Two of these–the two of most importance–we must consider here.
First, you should reckon with your personal, demonstrated needs. Just as you have already analyzed your working vocabulary for its general limits and shortcomings, so should you analyze it with particular reference to your poverty in synonyms. Watch your actual speech; make a list of the words–nouns, verbs, and adjectives particularly–that you employ again and again. Make each of these words the starting-point for a linguistic exploring expedition. First, write the word down. Then under it write all the synonyms that come forthwith to your mind. These constitute your present available stock; in speaking or writing you could, if you kept yourself mentally alert, summon them on the moment. But the list, as you know, is not exhaustive. Draw a line under it and subjoin such synonyms as come to you after reflection. These constitute a second stock, not instantaneously available, yet to be tagged as among your resources. Next add a list of the synonyms you find through research, through a ransacking of dictionaries and books of synonyms. This third stock, but dimly familiar if familiar at all, is in no practical sense yours. And indeed some of the words are too abstruse, learned, or technical for you to burden your memory with them. But many–most–are worth acquiring. By writing down the words of these three classes you have done something to stamp them upon your memory as associates. You must now make it your business to bring them into use. Never call upon them for volunteers, but like a wise commander summon the individual that can rightly perform a particular service. Thus will your speech, perhaps vague and indolent now, become exact, discriminating, competent, vital.
In the second place, you should obtain specific and detailed command of general ideas. Not of out-of-the-way ideas. But of the great basic ideas that are the common possession of all mankind. For through these basic ideas is the most natural and profitable approach to the study of synonyms. Each of them is represented by a generic word. So elementary are idea and word alike that a person cannot have the one in mind without having the other ready and a-quiver on his tongue. Every person is master of both. But it is unsafe to predicate the person’s acquaintance with the shades and phases of the idea, or with the corresponding discriminations in language. He may not know them at all, he may know them partially, he may know them through and through. Let us suppose him ignorant of them but determined to learn. His progress, both in the thought and in the language, will be from the general to the specific. His acquaintance with the idea in the large he will gradually extend to an acquaintance with it in detail, and his command of the broad term for it he will little by little supplement with definite terms for its phases. An illustration will make this clear.
We are aware that the world is made up of various classes and conditions of men. How did we learn this? Let us go back to the time when our minds were a blank, when we were babes and sucklings, when we had not perceived that men exist, much less that mankind is infinitely complex. A baby comes slowly to understand that all objects in the universe are divisible into two classes, human and non-human, and that a member of the former may be separated from the others and regarded as an individual. It has reached the initial stage of its knowledge on the subject; it has the basic idea, that of the individual human being. As soon as it can speak, it acquires a designating term–not of course the sophisticated _human being_, but the simpler _man_. It uses this word in the generic sense, to indicate _any_ member of the human race; for as yet it knows nothing and cares nothing about differences in species. With increasing enlightenment, however, it discerns five species, and distinguishes among them by swelling this branch of its vocabulary to five words: man (in the sense of adult male), woman, boy, girl, baby. (To be sure, it may chance to have acquired a specific term, as _boy_ or _baby_, before the generic term _man_; but if so, it has attached this term to some particular individual, as the grocer’s boy or itself, rather than to the individuals of a species. Its understanding of the species as a species comes after its understanding of the genus.) As time passes, it divides mankind into yet further species by sundry other methods: according to occupation, for example, as doctors, chauffeurs, gardeners; to race or color, as white men; negroes, Malays, Chinese; to disposition, as heroes, gift-givers, teasers, talkers; and so on. It perceives moreover that species are made up of sub-species. Thus instead of lumping all boys together it begins to distinguish them as big boys, little boys, middle-sized boys, boys in long trousers, boys in short trousers, barefoot boys, schoolboys, poor boys, rich boys, sick boys, well boys, friends, enemies, bullies, and what not. It even divides the sub-species. Thus it classifies schoolboys as bright boys, dullards, workers, shirkers, teachers’ favorites, scapegoats, athletes, note-throwers, truant-players, and the like. And of these classes it may make yet further sub-divisions, or at least it may separate them into the individuals that compose them. In fine, with its growing powers and experience, it abandons its old conception that all persons are practically alike, and follows human nature through the countless ramifications of man’s status, temperament, activities, or fate. And it augments its vocabulary to keep pace, roughly at least, with its expanding ideas. In thought and terminology alike its growth is from genus to species.
So it is with all our ideas and with all our words to cap them. We radiate from an ascertained center into new areas of knowledge; we proceed from the broad, fundamental, generic to the precise, discriminatory, specific. Upon this natural law are based the exercises in this chapter and the two to follow. The starting-point is always a word representative of an elementary idea–a word and an idea which everybody knows; the advance is into the unknown or the unused, at any rate into the particular. Now fundamental ideas are not very numerous, and these exercises include the commoner ones. Such a method of studying synonyms must therefore yield large and tangible results.
One matter, however, should be explained. Most books of synonyms start with a word and list all the terms in any way related to it. The idea of the compilers is that the more they give the student the more they help him. But oftentimes by giving more than is strictly pertinent they actually hinder and confuse him. They may do this in various ways, of which two must be mentioned. First, they follow an idea too far afield. Thus in listing the synonyms of _love_ they include such terms as _kindness_ and _lenity_, words only through stretched usage connected with _love_. Secondly, they trace, not one meaning of a word, but two or more unrelated meanings when the word chances to possess them. Thus in listing the synonyms of _cry_ they include both the idea of weeping and the idea of calling or screaming. What are the results of these methods? The student finds a clutter where he expects rationalized order; he finds he must exclude many words which lie in the borders and fringes of the meaning. Moreover he finds mere chance associations mingled with marked kinships. In both cases he finds dulled distinctions.
This book offers synonyms that are apropos and definite rather than comprehensive. Starting with a basic idea, it finds the generic term; it then disregards dim and distant relationships, confines itself rigorously to one of perhaps two or three legitimate senses, and refuses to consider the peculiar twists and devious ways of subsidiary words when they wander from the idea it is tracing. It thus deliberately blinds itself to much that is interesting. But this partial blindness enables it to concentrate attention upon the matter actually under study, to give sharper distinctions and surer guidance.
EXERCISE A
After three introductory groups (dealing with thoroughly concrete ideas and words) the synonyms in this exercise are arranged alphabetically according to the first word in each group.
This first word is generic. It is immediately followed by a list of its synonyms. These are then informally discriminated or else (in a few instances) questions are asked about them. Perhaps a few less closely related synonyms are then listed for you to discriminate in a similar way. Finally, illustrative sentences are given. Each blank in these you are to fill with the word that conveys the meaning exactly. (To prevent monotony and inattention, the number of illustrative sentences varies. You may have to use a particular word more than once, and another word not at all.)
Any one may be said to _walk_ who moves along on foot with moderate speed. He _plods_ if he walks slowly and heavily, and perhaps monotonously or spiritlessly as well. He _trudges_ if he walks toilsomely and wearily, as though his feet were heavy. He _treads_ if his walk is suggestive of a certain lightness and caution–if, for instance, he seems half-uncertain whether to proceed and sets one foot down carefully before the other. He _strides_ if he takes long steps, especially in a firm, pompous, or lofty manner. He _stalks_ if there is a certain stiffness or haughtiness in his walking. He _struts_ if he walks with a proud or affectedly dignified gait, especially if he also raises his feet high. He _tramps_ if he goes for a long walk, as for pleasure or enjoyment out-of-doors. He _marches_ if he walks in a measured, ordered way, especially in company with others. He _paces_ if he engages in a measured, continuous walk, as from nervousness, impatience, or anger. He _toddles_ if his steps are short, uneven, and unsteady, like those of a child. He _waddles_ if his movement is ungainly, with a duck-like swaying from side to side. He _shuffles_ if he drags his feet with a scraping noise. He _minces_ if he takes short steps in a prim, precise, or affectedly nice manner. He _strolls_ or _saunters_ if he goes along in an easy, aimless, or idle fashion. He _rambles_ if he wanders about, with no definite aim or toward no definite goal. He _meanders_ if he proceeds slowly and perhaps listlessly in an ever-changing course, as if he were following the windings of the crooked Phrygian river, Meander. He _promenades_ if he walks in a public place, as for pleasure or display. He _prowls_ if he moves about softly and stealthily, as in search of prey or booty. He _hobbles_ if he jerks along unevenly, as from a stiff or crippled condition of body. He _limps_ if he walks lamely. He _perambulates_ when he walks through, perhaps for observation or inspection. _(Perambulates is_ of course a learned word.)
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: They ____ down the lane in the moonlight. Rip Van Winkle loved to ____ about the mountains. “The plowman homeward ____ his weary way.” The old man ____ down the street with his cane. The excavators ____ about the ruins in search of relics. He ____ about the room, almost bursting with importance. The nervous man ____ up and down the station platform. They ____ along the beach at the sea resort. The baby learned to ____ when it was eleven months old. The two of them ____ about the field all day hunting rabbits. A ghost, so they tell me, ____ about the haunted house at midnight. He carefully ____ the plank that spans the abyss. The baby ____ toward us with outstretched arms. The Chinaman ____ out of the back room of the laundry in his carpet slippers. They caught glimpses of gaunt wolves ____ about their campfire. He was terrified when the giant ____ into the room. The fat lady ____ down the aisle of the street car. The sick man will ____ a few steps each day until he is stronger. A turkey cock ____ about the barnyard. A boy with a rag tied around his toe ____ painfully down the street. They reported to the police that a man had been ____ about the place. She held her skirts daintily and ____ along as if she were walking on eggs. The lovers ____ along the banks of the stream. He ____ through the hall like a conqueror. The children wore themselves out by ____ through the snow to school. We ____ through the meadows, often stooping to pick flowers as we went. The soldiers ____ into camp at nightfall.
What differences in human nature, conditions, and disposition are revealed by laughter! If a person gives audible expression to mirth, gayety, or good-humor, the simplest word to apply to what he does is _laugh_. But suppose a girl, with slight or insufficient provocation, engages in silly or foolish though perhaps involuntary laughter. We should say she _giggles_. Suppose a youngster is amused at an inappropriate moment and but partly suppresses his laughter; or suppose he wilfully permits the breaking forth of just enough laughter to indicate disrespect. He _snickers_. Suppose a person gives a little, light laugh; or more especially, suppose a crowd gives such an one as the result of slight, simultaneous amusement. Our word now is _titters_. Suppose we laugh low or gently or to ourselves. We _chuckle_. Suppose some one laughs loudly, boisterously, even coarsely, in a manner befitting a lumber camp rather than a drawing room. That person _guffaws_. Suppose a man engages in explosive and immoderate laughter. He _cachinnates_.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Second assignment_: Name all the words you can that designate inaudible laughter (for example,
_Sentences_: The rough fellow ____ in the lecturer’s face. “If you prick us, do we not bleed? if you tickle us, do we not ____?” He kept ____ at the thought of the surprise he would give them. “The swain mistrustless of his smutted face, While secret laughter ____ round the place.” The ill-bred fellow was ____ with strident, violent, irritating sounds. “The little dog ____ to see such sport.” The audience ____ when the speaker’s glasses began to slip from his nose. The girl kept ____ in a way that embarrassed us both. The small boy ____ when the preacher’s notes fluttered out of the Bible to the floor. The rude fellows ____ at this evidence of my discomfiture. He ____ very kindly and told me not to feel any regrets. The little maids tried to be polite, but ____ irrepressibly.
A person simply directs his eyes to see. He _looks_. But eyes may speak, we are told, and since this person undergoes many changes of mood and purpose, we shall let his eyes tell us all they will about his different manners of looking. At first he but looks momentarily (as from lack of time) or casually (as from lack of interest). He _glances_. Soon he makes a business of looking, and fastens his eyes for a long time on something he admires or wonders at. He _gazes_. Presently he looks with a blank, perhaps a rude, expression and with eyes opened widely; he may be for the moment overcome with incomprehension, surprise, or fright, or perhaps he wishes to be insolent. He _stares_. Now he is looking narrowly or closely at something that he sees with difficulty. He _peers_. The next moment he looks over something with care or with an encompassing sweep of vision. He _scans_ it. His interest thoroughly enlisted, he looks at it carefully point by point to see that it is right in each detail. He _scrutinizes_ it. He then alters his mood, and looks with scornful or malignant satisfaction upon something he has conquered or has power over. He _gloats_. Anger, perhaps fierceness, takes possession of him, and he looks with piercing eyes. He _glares_. Threat mingles with anger, and in all likelihood he looks scowlingly or frowningly. He _glowers_. An added expression of sullenness or gloom comes into his look. He _lowers_. He throws off his dark spirit and looks slyly and playfully, let us say through a small opening. He _peeks_. Playfulness gives place to curiosity; he looks quickly and furtively, perhaps through some tiny aperture, and probably at something he has no business to see. He _peeps_. The while he looks his mouth falls open, as from stupidity or wonder. He _gapes_. He looks at something a long time to study it. He _cons_ or _pores_. His study is not of the thing itself; it is meditation or reverie. He _pores_. A member of the opposite sex is present; he looks at her with the effort of a flirt to attract attention to himself, or less scrupulous, he directs toward her amorous or inviting glances. He _ogles_.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences:_ The inspecting officer ____ the men’s equipment. The student ____ his lessons carefully. At this unexpected proposal Dobbett merely ____. Jimmie ____ at the fellow who had kicked the pup. The inquisitive maid ____ into all the the closets. He ____ over his fallen adversary. The bookkeeper ____ over his ledger. In the darkened hallway he ____ at the notices on the bulletin board. “The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth ____ from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven.” From the way her father ____ the foolish, young man should have known it was time to go. He ____ long and lovingly upon the scenes he was leaving. The newcomer ____ insolently at his host and ____ the young ladies.
_Abandon_ denotes absolute giving up, as from force of circumstances or shirking of responsibility. _Desert_ refers to leaving or quitting in violation of obligation, duty, or oath. _Forsake_, which may involve no culpability, usually implies a breaking off of intimate association or attachment.
_Sentences_: The sailor ____ his ship. Necessity compelled him to ____ his friends in a time of sore trouble. They hated to ____ their old haunts. A brave man never ____ hope. An unscrupulous man will ____ his principles when it is to his advantage. “When my father and my mother ____ me, then the Lord will take me up.” We ____ our attempt to save the ship.
To _abase_ is to bring down so that the victim feels himself lowered in estate or external condition. To _debase_ is to produce a marked decline in actual worth or in moral quality. To _degrade_ is to lower in rank or status. To _humble_ is to lower in dignity or self-esteem, or as used reflexively, to restrain one’s own pride; the word often implies that the person has been over-proud or arrogant. To _humiliate_ is to deprive of self-esteem or to bring into ignominy. To _disgrace_ is to bring actual shame upon.
_Sentences_: They ____ the guilty officer from captain to lieutenant. A man should ____ himself before God. He had so ____ himself that I no longer expected good of him. His detection at cheating had ____ him before the students. By successive overlords they had been ____ into a condition of serfdom. The aristocratic old lady was ____ by her loss of social position. The conversion of so much bullion into money had ____ the coinage.
An interesting thing about the _answer_ group is that the generic term has a somewhat strong rival in _reply_, itself fairly inclusive. We must therefore discriminate rather fully between _answer_ and _reply_. The former is a return in words to a question, a communication, or an argument. The latter suggests a more or less formal answer, as one carefully prepared or intelligently thought out. We might give an _answer_ offhand, but are less likely to give a _reply_ so. We may give any kind of _answer_ to a question, but if we give a _reply_, the implication is that we have answered it definitely, perhaps satisfactorily. On the other hand, in controversial matters we may, though we by no means always do, imply a more conclusive meeting of objections through _answer_ than through _reply_. A _response_ is an expected answer, one in harmony with the question or assertion, or in some way carrying the thought farther. A _rejoinder_ is a quick reply to something controversial or calling forth opposition. A _retort_ is a short, sharp reply, such as turns back censure or derision, or as springs from anger. A _repartee_ is an immediate and witty reply, perhaps to a remark of similar character which it is intended to surpass in cleverness.
_Sentences_: The detailed ____ to our letter should reach us within a week. The plays of Oscar Wilde abound in brilliant ____. The speaker’s ____ to the heckler was incisive and scathing. My ____ to that third question in the examination in history was incorrect. The congregation read the ____ in unison. You have enumerated objections to my course; here is their ____. “This is no ____, thou unfeeling man. To excuse the current of thy cruelty.” There was silence throughout the chamber as the old statesman rose to make his ____. To the tenderfoot’s remark the guide mumbled an indifferent ____. Our appeal for the sufferers elicited but a poor ____.
From the general tree of asking grow many branches, different in size, in the direction they take, in the shades of meaning they cast. What can we learn from a rapid scrutiny of each? That to _inquire_ is to ask for specific information. That to _question_ is to keep asking in order to obtain detailed or reluctantly given information. That to _interrogate_ is to question formally, systematically, or thoroughly. That to _interpellate_ is to question as of unchallenged right, as in a deliberative body. That to _query_ is to bring a thing into question because of doubt as to its correctness or truth. That to _quiz_is to question closely and persistently, as from meddlesomeness, opposition, or curiosity. That to _catechize is_ to question in a minute, perhaps impertinent, manner in order to ascertain one’s secrets or the amount of his knowledge or information. That to _request_ is to ask formally and politely. That to _beg_ is to ask for deferentially or humbly, especially on the ground of pity. That to _solicit_ is to ask with urgency. That to _entreat_ is to ask with strong desire and moving appeal. That to _beseech_ is to ask earnestly as a boon or favor. That to _crave_ is to ask humbly and abjectly, as though unworthy of receiving. That to _implore_ is to ask with fervor and intense earnestness. That to _supplicate_ is to ask with urgent or even desperate appeal. (Both _implore_ and _supplicate_ imply humility, as of a prayer to a superior being.) That to _importune_ is to ask for persistently, even wearyingly. That to _petition_ is to ask a superior, usually in writing, for some favor, grant, or right.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: The leader of the minority ____ the upholders of the measure sharply as to a secret understanding. I ____ you to keep your promise. I shall ____ that solution for the present. The colonists ____ Great Britain for a redress of grievances. She ____ the governor to grant her husband a pardon. A child is naturally inquisitive and ____ many questions. I ____ you to show mercy. On bended knees he ____ God’s forgiveness. “I’m stopp’d by all the fools I meet And ____ in every street.” The policeman ____ the suspect closely. The prosecuting attorney ____ the witness. We are ____ funds to aid the famine-stricken people of India. He ____ me about your health. You should ____ at the office about the lost package. She ____ your presence at the party. Every one resents being ____. I ____ you to care for the child after I am gone. A fool can ____ questions a wise man can’t answer. She annoyed them by constantly ____ them for favors. The reporter ____ into the causes of the riot. “____ and it shall be given you.” I ____ your pardon, though I well know I do not deserve it. The man ____ me to give him some money for food.
If you consume or injure something by bringing it in contact with fire or heat, you _burn_ it. If you do not consume it but burn it superficially so as to change the texture or color of its surface, you _scorch_ it. If you burn off ends or projections of it, you _singe_ it. If you burn its surface to dryness or hardness, you _sear_ it. If you dry or shrivel it with heat, you _parch_ it. If through heat you reduce it to a state of charcoal, or cinders, you _char_ it. If you burn it to ashes, you _incinerate_ it. (This word is learned and but little used in ordinary discourse.) If you burn a dead body to ashes, you _cremate_ it. If you burn or sear anything with a hot iron or a corrosive substance, you _cauterize_ it.
_Sentences:_ The hired girl ____ the cloth in ironing it. By getting too close to the fire he ____ the nap of his flannels. The doctor at once ____ the wound. The cook had picked the chicken and now ____ its down over the coals. I used to ____ grains of field corn on the cookstove, while my mother prepared dinner. Shelley’s body was ____ on a funeral pyre. The lecturer spoke of the time when the whole earth might be ____. The earth was ____ and all growing things were ____ by the intense summer heat.
From much of the talk that we hear nowadays it might be supposed that the earnest devotion of one’s self to a task is a thing that has disappeared from the earth. But a good many people are exhibiting this very devotion. Let us see in what different degrees. The man who actively applies himself to something, whether temporarily or habitually, is _busy_. The man who makes continued application to work a principle or habit of life, is _industrious_. The man who applies himself aggressively to the accomplishment of some specific undertaking or pursuit, is _diligent_. The man who quietly and determinedly sticks to a task until it is accomplished, no matter what its difficulties or length, is _assiduous_. The man who makes steady and painstaking application to whatever he is about, is _sedulous_.
_Sentences_: Early in life he acquired ____ habits. By patient and ____ study you may overcome those defects of your early education. “How doth the ____ little bee improve each shining hour.” The manager gave such ____ attention to details that he made few mistakes. He is ____ at present. Oh, yes, he is always ____. “Nowher so ____ a man has he ther has, And yet he seemed ____ than he was.”
Words descriptive of brief utterance are, in nearly every instance, in their origin figurative. The brevity is brought out by comparison with something that is noticeably short or small. Let us examine the words of our list for their figurative qualities. A _concise_ statement is one that is _cut down_ until a great deal is said in a few words. A _terse_ statement is _rubbed off_, rid of unessentials. A _succinct_ statement has its important thoughts _bound_ into small compass, as by a girdle. A _compendious_ statement _weighs together_ the various thoughts and aspects of a subject; it shows by means of a few effective words just what these amount to, gives a summary of them. A _compact_ statement has its units of thought _fastened together_ into firmness of structure; its brevity is well-knit. A _sententious_ statement gives _feelings_ or opinions_ in a strikingly pointed or axiomatic way, so that they can be easily grasped and remembered; if _sententious_ is unfavorably used, the statement may be filled with paraded platitudes. A _pithy_ statement gives the very _pith_, the heart of a matter; it is sometimes slightly quaint, always effective and arresting. A _laconic_ statement is made in the manner of _the Spartans_, who hated talk and used as few words as possible. A _curt_ statement is _made short_; its abruptness is oftentimes more or less rude.
_Sentences_: “A tale should be judicious, clear, ____. The language plain, and incidents well link’d.” “Charles Lamb made the most ____ criticism of Spenser when he called him the poet’s poet.” With a ____ disdainful answer she turned away. The sermon was filled with ____ sayings. By omitting all irrelevant details, he made his statement of the case ____. It requires great skill to give a ____ statement of what such a treatise contains. A proverb is a ____ statement of a truth.
Men are as mindful of rank and pretension in their terms for the cessation of life as in their choice of tombstones for the departed. _Death_ is the great, democratic, unspoilable word. It is not too good for a clown or too poor for an emperor. _Decease_ is a more formal word. Its employment is often legal–the death proves to be of sufficient importance for the law (and the lawyers) to take notice. _Demise_, however, is outwardly the most resplendent term of all. It implies that the victim cut a wide swath even in death. It is used of an illustrious person, as a king, who transmits his title to an heir. Ordinary people cannot afford a _demise_. If the term is applied to their shuffling off of this mortal coil, the use is euphemistic and likely to be stilted.
_Sentences_: “The crown at the moment of ____ must descend to the next heir.” “____ is a fearful thing.” “In their ____ they were not divided.” At the ____ of his father he inherited the estate. “Each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of ____.” “Many a time I have been half in love with easeful ____.”
_Early_ is the simple word for that which was in, or toward, the beginning. That is _primitive_ which has the old-fashioned or simple qualities characteristic of the beginning. That is _primeval_ which is of the first or earliest ages. That is _primordial_ which is first in origin, formation, or development. That is _primal_ which is first or original. (The word is poetic.) That is _pristine_ which has not been corrupted from its original state.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences:_ It was a hardy mountain folk that preserved the ____ virtues. The ____ history of mankind is shrouded in uncertainty. “This is the forest ____.” “It hath the ____ eldest curse upon ‘t, A brother’s murder.” “A ____ leaf is that which is immediately developed from the cotyledon.” As the explorers penetrated farther into the country, they beheld all the ____ beauties of nature. Some countries still use the ____ method of plowing with a stick.
We hear some one say that he reads faces. How? Through long study of them and what they indicate. The human race as a whole has been reading faces through the centuries. It has felt such need to label certain recurring aspects of them that it has invented the designating terms. Of these terms the simple, inclusive one is of course _face_ itself. If, however, we are thinking of the face as its look or expression reveals thoughts, emotions, or state of mind, our term is _countenance_. If we are thinking of it as distinguished or individualized by the contour, lines, etc., we speak of the _features_. If we are thinking of its external appearance or aspect, we call it the _visage_. If, finally, we are thinking of it as indicative of mind, disposition, or fundamental character, we say _physiognomy._
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: His grotesque ____ reminded one of a gargoyle. It is said that the ____ of persons living constantly together tend to become alike. “Behind a frowning providence He hides a smiling ____.” The teacher told the students to wash their ____ every morning. “A ____ more in sorrow than in anger.” The firm but kind ____ of the old statesman shone happily at this ovation. “For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then ____ to ____.” She turned an eager ____ up to me as she spoke. One’s ____ is moulded by one’s thoughts. Cosmetics injure the ____. His clear-cut ____ impressed his employer.
_Financial_ is usually applied to money matters of considerable size or moment. _Monetary_ applies to money, coin, or currency as such. _Pecuniary_ refers to practical matters in which money is involved, though not usually in large amounts. _Fiscal_ refers especially to the time when money, receipts, and accounts are balanced or reckoned.
_Sentences:_ A ____ reward has been offered. We gave the unfortunate man ____ assistance. The ____ system of the country was sound. It was Hamilton who more than any one else shaped the ____ policies of the new government. Experts audit the company’s accounts at the end of the ____ year. The ____ interests of the country were behind the bill.
To _flee_ is to run away from what one would avoid, as danger, arrest, or the like. To _abscond_ is to steal off secretly and hide one’s self, as from some disgraceful reason or to avoid arrest. To _decamp_ is to leave suddenly in great haste to get away; the word is often used humorously.
_Sentences_: They went to have their money refunded, but the swindler had ____. The bank teller ____ after having squandered most of the deposits. Yes, we were in proximity to a polecat, and without further parley we ____. “Resist the devil, and he will ____ from you.” William Wallace, when pursued by the English, ____ into the Highlands.
_Foretell_ is the general word for stating or perceiving beforehand that which will happen. _Predict_ implies foretelling based on well-founded or precise knowledge. _Prophesy_ often implies supernatural inspiration to foretell correctly. The word is especially so used in connection with the Scriptures; but in the Scriptures themselves it frequently expresses insight and admonition without the element of foretelling. _Forecast_ involves a marked degree of conjecture. _Presage_ usually means to give as a presentiment or warning. _Forebode_ expresses an uncertain foreknowledge of vague impending evil. _Portend_ indicates the likelihood that something will befall which is threatening or evil in its consequences. _Augur_ means foretelling from omens. _Prognosticate_ means foretelling through the study of signs or symptoms.
_Sentences_: “For we know in part, and we ____ in part.” (Insert in the blank, successively, the terms just distinguished. In each instance how is the meaning affected? Do any of the terms fail to make sense at all? Which term do you think the right one? Bearing in mind the distinctions we have made, frame sentences of your own to embody the terms.)
_Get_, the general term, may be used of whatever one comes by whatsoever means to possess, experience, or realize. To _acquire_ is to get into more or less permanent possession, either by some gradual process or by one’s determined efforts. To _obtain_ is to get something desired by means of deliberate effort or request. To _procure_ is to get by definitely planned effort something which, in most instances, is of a temporary nature or the possession of which is temporary. To _attain_ is to get through striving that which one has set as a goal or end of his desire or ambition. To _gain_ is to get that which is advantageous. To _win_ is to get as the result of successful competition or the overcoming of opposition. To _earn_ is to get as a deserved reward for one’s efforts or exertions.
_Sentences_: With such wages as those, he can barely ____ a living. He ____ a pardon by appealing to the governor. The speaker ____ his point by forcing his opponent to admit that the figures were misleading. By buying in June I can ____ a good overcoat at half price. Did you ____ only seven thousand dollars for your house? Walpole believed in ____ one’s ends in the surest and easiest way possible. It is illegal to ____ money through false pretences. A junior ____ the prize in the oratorical contest. Kirk ____ his advancement by taking a personal interest in the firm’s welfare. The painter ____ a foreign accent while he was studying in Paris. He ____ their gratitude by loyally serving them. It was through sacrifices that he ____ an education.
We _give_ that which we transfer from our own to another’s possession or ownership, usually without compensation. We _bestow_ that which we give gratuitously, or of which the recipient stands in especial need. We _grant_ that which has been requested by one dependent upon us or inferior to us, and which we give with some formality. From a position of superiority we _confer_ as a favor or honor that which we might withhold or deny. We _present_ that which is of importance or value and which we give ceremoniously.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: William the Conqueror ____ English estates upon his followers. The rich man ____ his wonderful art collection to the museum. My application for a leave of absence has been ____. The ticket agent ____ us complete information. Every year he ____ alms upon the poor in that neighborhood. The school board may ____ an increase in the salaries of teachers. Many merchants ____ premiums with the articles they sell. The college ____ an honorary degree upon the distinguished visitor. The Pilgrims ____ thanks to God for their preservation. “Not what we ____, but what we share.”
What did John Wesley mean by saying, “Though I am always in _haste_, I am never in a _hurry_”? Does Lord Chesterfield’s saying “Whoever is in a _hurry_ shows that the thing he is about is too big for him” help explain the distinction? Explain the distinction (taking _speed_ in the modern sense) in the saying “The more _haste_, ever the worse _speed_.” “The tidings were borne with the usual _celerity_ of evil news.” Give the well-known saying in four simple words that express the same idea. Which of the two statements is the more forceful? Which is the more literary? Why did Prescott use the former in his _Ferdinand and Isabella_? “_Despatch_,” says Lord Chesterfield, “is the soul of business.” What does _despatch_ suggest about getting work done that _haste_ or _speed_ does not? In which way would you prefer for your employee to go about his task–with _haste_, with _speed_, or with _despatch_? “With winged _expedition_, Swift as the lightning glance, he executes His errand on the wicked.” Why is it that this use of _expedition_ in Milton’s lines is apt? Would _despatch_ have served as well? If not, why not?
To _hate_ involves deep or passionate dislike, sometimes bred of ill-will. To _detest_ involves an intense, vehement, or deep-seated antipathy. To _abhor_ involves utter repugnance or aversion, with an impulse to recoil. To _loathe_ involves disgust because of physical or moral offensiveness. To _abominate_ involves strong moral aversion, as of that which is odious or wicked. To _despise_ is to dislike and look down upon as inferior.
_Sentences_: When he had explained his fell purpose, I could only ____ him. Who would not ____ a slimy creature like Uriah Heep? It is natural for us to ____ our enemies. She ____ greasy food. There suddenly in my pathway was the venomous reptile, darting out its tongue; oh, I ____ snakes! A wholesome nature must ____ such principles as these. A child ____ to kiss and make up. The pampered young millionaire ____ those who are simply honest and kind. These daily practices of her associates she ____.
The words of this group are assuredly blessed. Every one of them has to do with the giving, promotion, or preservation of health. But health is of various kinds, and therefore the words apply differently. _Healthful_ is the most inclusive of them; it means that the thing it refers to is full of health for us. _Wholesome_ also is a very broad term; what is wholesome is good for us physically, mentally, or morally. _Salutary_ is confined to that which affects for good our moral (including civic and social) welfare, especially if it counteracts evil influences or propensities. _Salubrious_ is confined to the physical; it is used almost solely of healthful air or climate. _Sanitary_ and _hygienic_ apply to physical well-being as promoted by the eradication of the causes for sickness, disease, or the like; _sanitary_, however, is used of measures and conditions affecting people in general, whereas _hygienic_ connects itself with personal habits.
_Assignment for further discrimination_: The word _healthy_ is often confused with _healthful_. You have already discriminated between these two terms, but you should renew your knowledge of the distinction between them.
_Sentences_: Colorado is noted for its ____ air. He offered the young people some ____ advice. A person should brush his teeth every day for ____ reasons. In spite of its horrors, the French Revolution has had a ____ effect upon civilization. Damp, low places do not have a ____ climate. Cities in the middle ages were not ____. His is a very ____ way of life. My doctor recommends buttermilk as ____.
He knew that it was a ____ responsibility. (Insert the four words in the blank space in turn, and analyze the differences in meaning thus produced.)
He made a ____ donation to the endowment fund. (Insert the four words in the blank space in turn, and analyze the differences in meaning.)
“A man’s a man for a’ that,” sang the poet. So he is, but not all the adjectives allusive to his state are equally complimentary. _Masculine_ betokens the qualities and characteristics belonging to men. _Male_ designates sex and is used of animals as well as human beings. _Manly_ (used of boys as well as men) implies the possession of qualities worthy of a man, as strength, courage, sincerity, honesty, independence, or even tenderness. _Manlike_ refers to qualities, attributes, or foibles characteristically masculine. _Manful_ suggests the valor, prowess, or resolution properly belonging to men. _Mannish_ (a derogatory word) indicates superficial or affected qualities of manhood, especially when inappropriately possessed by a woman. _Virile_ applies to the sturdy and intrepid qualities of mature manhood.
_Sentences_: The Chinese especially prize ____ children. He was a ____ little fellow. She walked with a ____ stride. With ____ courage he faced the crisis. It was a ____ defense of an unpopular cause. ____ strength is the complement of female grace. The old sailor still retained the rugged and ____ strength of a man much younger. With ____ bluntness he told her what he thought. Such gentleness is not weak; it is ____. He made a ____ struggle against odds. “His ____ brow Consents to death, but conquers agony.” Now isn’t that assumption of omniscience ____?
A _name_ is the word or words by which a person or thing is called or known. If the name be descriptive or characterizing, even though in a fanciful way, it is an _appellation_. If it particularizes an individual through reference to distinctive quality or nature, perhaps without employing any word the individual is usually known by, it is a _designation_. If it specifies a class, especially a religious sect or a kind of coin, it is a _denomination_. If it is an official or honorary description of rank, office, place within a profession, or the like, it is a _title_. If it is assumed, as to conceal identity, it is an _alias_.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: Yes, it is a five-dollar gold piece, though one doesn’t often see a coin of that ____ nowadays. The Little Corporal is the ____ applied to Napoleon by his soldiers. The eldest son of the king of England bears the ____ of the Prince of Wales. The government issues stamps in various ____. “That loafer” was his contemptuous ____ of the man who could not find work. “Duke” is the highest ____ of nobility in England. The crook was known to the police under many ____. At the battle of Bull Run Jackson received the ____ “Stonewall.” “What’s in a[n] ____? that which we call a rose By any other ____ would smell as sweet.” The head of the American government bears the ____ of President. The Mist of Spring was the little Indian maiden’s ____. His ____ was Thornberg.
We reserve the right to judge for ourselves when told that something– especially a joke–is “the very latest.” So may we likewise discriminate among degrees of age. _Old_ is applied to a person or thing that has existed for a long time or that existed in the distant past. The word may suggest a familiarity or sentiment not found in _ancient_, which is used of that which lived or happened in the remote past, or has come down from it. _Olden_ applies almost wholly to time long past. _Antique_ is the term for that which has come down from ancient times or is made in imitation of the style of ancient times, whereas _antiquated_ is the term for that which has gone out of style or fashion. _Archaic_ and _obsolete_ refer to words, customs, or the like, the former to such as savor of an earlier period though they are not yet completely out of use, the latter to such as have passed out of use altogether. _Immemorial_ implies that a thing is so old that it is beyond the time of memory or record. _Elderly_ is applied to persons who are between middle age and old age. _Aged_ is used of one who has lived for an unusually long time. _Hoary_ refers to age as revealed by white hair. _Venerable_ suggests the reverence to be paid to the dignity, goodness, or wisdom of old age. _Decrepit_ conveys a sense of the physical infirmities and weakness which attend old age; _senile_ of the lessening powers of both body and mind that result from old age. _Superannuated_ is applied to a person who on account of old age has been declared incapable of continuing his activities.
_Sentences_: He liked to read romances of the ____ days. Dana records that he once saw a man so ____ that he had to raise his eyelids with his fingers. Many writers use ____ words to give quaintness to their work. He liked to sit around in his ____ clothes. “The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ____ solitary reign.” Some of these ____ sequoia trees were old before the white man discovered this continent. They are building the church in the ____ Roman style of architecture. “Be not … the last to lay the ____ aside.” Many of Chaucer’s words, being ____, cannot possibly be understood without a glossary. Most churches now have funds for ____ ministers. A man is as ____ as he feels; a woman is as ____ as she looks. The ____ old man could scarcely hobble across the room. What better proof that he is ____ do you ask than that he babbles constantly about what happened when he was young? “I am a very foolish fond ____ man, Fourscore and upward.” They revered the ____ locks of the old hero. At sixty a man is considered a[n] ____ person. That the earth is flat is a[n] ____ idea. The young warriors listened respectfully to the ____ chief’s advice. They unearthed a[n] ____ vase. “____ wood best to burn, ____ wine to drink, ____ friends to trust, and ____ authors to read.” His favorite study was ____ history. “Grow ____ along with me.” “The most ____ heavens, through thee, are fresh and strong.”
Most men are willing to receive what is due them. They might even be persuaded to receive a bit more. Why should they not be as scrupulous to receive what they are entitled to in the medium of language as of money? Sometimes they are. Offering to _pay_ some people instead of to _compensate_ them is like offering a tip to the wrong person. Why? Because there is a social implication in _compensate_ which is not contained in _pay_. To _pay_ is simply to give what is due, as in wages (or even salary), price, or the like. To _compensate_ is to make suitable return for service rendered. Does _compensate_ not sound the more soothing? But save in exceptional circumstances the downrightness of _pay_ has no hint of vulgarity. To _recompense_ is to make a return, especially if it is not monetary, for work, pains, trouble, losses, or suffering; or some quality or blessing (as affection or happiness) may be said to recompense one. To _remunerate_ is to disburse a large amount to a person, or to give it to him as a reward, or otherwise to make him a return in a matter of importance. To _requite_ is to put a just value upon one’s work, deeds, or merit and to make payment strictly in accordance with his deserts. To _reimburse_ is to make good what some one has spent for you. To _indemnify_ is to secure some one against loss or to make restitution for damages he has sustained.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: Let us ____ him for his efforts in our behalf. Let us ____ their kindness with kindness, their cruelty with cruelty. To ____ them adequately for such patriotic sacrifices is of course impossible. The government demanded that it be ____ for the injury to its citizens. I shall ____ you for all sums expended. He ____ the bill by a check. The success of her children ____ a mother for her sacrifices for them. Wages are ____ to laborers; salaries are ____ to judges.
Most persons feel in their hearts that their claims and merits are superior to those of other people. But they do not like for you, in describing them, to imply that their self-appraisal is too high. “Comparisons are odious,” and therefore in comparing their fancied with their real selves you must choose your terms carefully. Of the words that suggest an exaggerated estimate of one’s merits or privileges the broadest, as well as the least offensive, is _proud_. In fact this word need not carry the idea of exaggeration. A proud man may but hold himself in justifiable esteem, or wish to measure up to the demands of his station or to the expectations of others. On the other hand, he may overvalue his attainments, possessions, connections, etc. To say that the man is _arrogant_ means that he combines with pride a contempt for others, that he claims for himself greater attention, consideration, or respect than he is entitled to. To say that he is _presumptuous_ makes him an inferior (or at least not a superior) who claims privileges or takes liberties improperly. To say that he is _haughty_ means that he assumes a disdainful superiority to others, especially through fancied or actual advantage over them in birth or social position. To say that he is _supercilious_ means that he maintains toward others an attitude of lofty indifference or sneering contempt. To say that he is _insolent_ means that he is purposely and perhaps coarsely disrespectful toward others, especially toward his superiors. To say that he is _insulting_ means that he gives or offers personal affront, probably in scornful or disdainful speech.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: He was ____ in replying to the questions. She paid no attention to his words, but kept looking at him with a[n] ____ smile. He was ____ in acting as if he were their equal. The hot-tempered fellow answered this ____ remark with a blow. She resented his presuming to speak to her, and turned away in a[n] ____ manner. The servant was ____ to her mistress. Are you not very ____ of your family connections? The old man was so ____ that he expected people to raise their hats to him and not to sit down till he gave permission.
To _punish_ a person is to inflict pain or penalty upon him as a retribution for wrong-doing. There may be, usually is, no intention to improve the offender. To _chastise_ him is to inflict deserved corporal punishment upon him for corrective purposes. To _chasten_ him is to afflict him with trouble for his reformation or spiritual betterment. The word is normally employed in connection with such affliction from God.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: “Hearing oftentimes The still, sad music of humanity, Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power To ____ and subdue.” Ichabod Crane freely used his ferule in ____ his pupils. “Whom the Lord loveth he ____.” A naughty child should be ____.
“It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Substitute _wealthy_ for _rich_. Is the meaning exactly the same? Is Goldsmith’s description of the village preacher–“passing rich with forty pounds a year”–as effective if _wealthy_ is substituted? What is the difference between _riches_ and _wealth_? Which implies the greater degree of possession, which the more permanence and stability? Which word suggests the more personal relationship with money? Which word the more definitely denotes money or its immediate equivalent? Why do we say “get-rich-quick schemes” rather than “get-wealthy-quick schemes”? What besides the possession of wealth does _affluent_ suggest? Could we say that a rich miser lives in affluence? If not, why not? A poor clerk who has ten dollars to spend as he pleases may feel affluent. A rich banker may be a man of affluence in his town. What power does this suggest that he has besides the possession of a great deal of money? Explain all that Swift implies by the word _opulence_ in the quotation “There in full opulence a banker dwelt, Who all the joys and pangs of riches felt.” If you substitute _affluence_, what different impression do you get?
“The _rural_ inhabitants of a country.” Are the people being spoken of favorably, unfavorably, or neutrally? How would the meaning be affected if they were called _rustic_ inhabitants? Would you ordinarily speak of the _rural_ or the _rustic_ population to distinguish it from the urban? Would you speak of _rural_ or _rustic_ activities? _rural_ or _rustic_ manners? When the two adjectives may be employed, is one of them unflattering? Is a _rustic_ bridge something to be ashamed of? a _rustic_ chair? a _rustic_ gate? What, then, is the degree of reproach that attaches to each of the two adjectives? the degree of commendation? Wherein do _pastoral_ scenes differ from _rural_? _pastoral_ amusements from _rustic_? Can you trace a connection between the _pastor_ of a church and a _pastoral_ life? Do you often hear the word _bucolic_? In what mood is it oftenest uttered? Which of the four adjectives best fits into Goldsmith’s dignified lament: “And ____ mirth and manners are no more”?
We pass through a crowded room and notice that some of its occupants are not adding their voices to the chatter. We resolve to study these unspeaking persons. Some of them merely have nothing to say, or are timid or preoccupied; or it may be they deliberately have set themselves not to talk. These are _silent_. Some plainly desire not to talk, it may be in general or it may be upon some particular topic; they may (but need not) regard themselves as superior to their associates, or for some other reason let aloofness or coldness creep into their manner. These are _reserved_. Others withhold information that persons about them are, or would be, interested in. These are _uncommunicative_. Others maintain their own counsel; they neglect opportunities to reveal their thoughts, plans, and the like. These are _reticent_. Others are disinclined–and habitually, we perceive–to talking. These are _taciturn_.
_Sentences_: The ____ prisoner evaded all questions. He was as ____ as nature itself; he never gave his views upon any subject. He was ____ about the firm’s affairs, especially toward persons who seemed inquisitive. We knew there had been a love affair in his life, but he was ____ on the subject. She sat ____ throughout the discussion. If to be ____ is golden, Lucas should have been a billionaire.
You hear a “concord of sweet sounds,” not instrumental but vocal, and wish to tell me so. You say that some person _sings_. Then you recall that I am something of an expert in music, and you cast about for the word that shall state specifically the kind of singing that is being done. Does the person sing solemnly in a more or less uniform tone? You tell me that he _chants_. Does he sing gladly, spontaneously, high-spiritedly, as if his heart were pouring over with joy? You say that he _carols_. Does he sing with vibratory notes and little runs, as in bird-music? You say that he _warbles_. Does he sing loudly and freely? You say that he _trolls_. Does he sing with peculiar modulations from the regular into a falsetto voice? You say that he _yodels_. Does he sing a simple, perhaps tender, song in a low tone (as a lullaby to an infant)? You say that he _croons_. Does he sing with his lips closed? You say that he _hums_. Does he utter the short, perhaps sharp, notes of certain birds and insects? You say that he _chirps_ or _chirrups_.
_Assignment for further discrimination_: peep, cheep, twitter>.
_Sentences_: A cricket ____ in the grass outside the door. He abstractedly gazed out of the window and ____ a few strains of an old song. Listen, they are ____ the Te Deum. “And ____ still dost soar, and soaring ever ____.” A strange, uncanny blending of false and true notes it is when the Swiss mountaineers are ____. Negroes, as a race, love to ____. As she soothes the child to sleep she ____ a “rock-a-bye-baby.”
_Suave_ implies agreeable persuasiveness or smooth urbanity. _Bland_ suggests a soothing or coaxing kindness of manner, one that is sometimes lacking in sincerity. _Unctuous_ implies excessive smoothness, as though one’s manner were oiled. The word carries a decided suggestion of hypocrisy. _Fulsome_ suggests such gross flattery as to be annoying or cloying. _Smug_ suggests an effeminate self-satisfaction, usually not justified by merit or achievement.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: He thought his answer exceedingly brilliant and settled back into his chair with ____ complacency. “____ the smile that like a wrinkling wind On glassy water drove his cheek in lines.” They were irritated by his ____ praise. Although he disliked them, he greeted them with ____ cordiality. “A bankrupt, a prodigal, … that used to come so ____ upon the mart; let him look to his bond.” ____ as a diplomat.
A little while ago you were in a crowded room and made a study of the persons disposed to silence. But your study was carried on under difficulties, for many of those about you showed a tendency to copious or excessive speech. One woman entered readily into conversation with you and convinced you that her natural disposition was to converse a great deal. She was _talkative_. From her you escaped to a man who soon proved that he talked too much and could run on with an incessant flow of words, perhaps employing many of them where a few would have sufficed. He was _loquacious_. The two of you were joined by an old gentleman who forthwith began to talk wordily, tediously, continuously, with needless repetitions and in tiresome detail; you suspected that he had suffered a mental decline from age, and that he might be excessively fond, in season and out of season, of talking about himself and his opinions. He was _garrulous_. You broke away from these two and fell into the hands of a much more agreeable interlocutor. He talked with a ready, easy command of words, so that his discourse _flowed_ smoothly. He was _fluent_. He introduced you to a lady whose speech possessed smoothness and ease in too great degree; it fairly _rolled_ along, as a hoop does downhill. The lady was _voluble_. Into your triangular group broke a newcomer whose speech had in it a flippant, or at least a superficially clever, fluency. He was _glib_. Leaving these three to fight (or talk) it out as best they might, you grabbed your hat and hurried outside for a fresh whiff of air.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: The insurance agent was so ____ a talker that I was soothed into sleepiness by his voice. The ____ old man could talk forever about the happenings of his boyhood. Through ____ descriptions of life in the city the dapper summer boarder entranced the simple country girl. I met a ____ fellow on the train, and we had a long conversation. She was so ____ that I spent half the afternoon with her and learned nothing.
_Weak_ is the general word for that which is deficient in strength. _Debilitated_ is used of physical weakness, in most instances brought on by excesses and abuses. _Feeble_ denotes decided or extreme weakness, which may excite pity or contempt. _Infirm_ is applied to a person whose weakness or feebleness is due to age. _Decrepit_ is used in reference to a person broken down or worn out by infirmities, age, or sickness. _Impotent_ implies such loss or lack of strength or vitality as to render ineffective or helpless.
_Assignment for further discrimination_:
_Sentences_: “Here I stand, your slave, A poor, ____, weak, and despis’d old man.” A[n] ____ old man shuffled along with the aid of a cane. Though still in his youth, he was ____ from intemperance and fast living. A fellow who does that has a[n] ____ mind. He staggered about trying to strike his opponent, but rage and his wound rendered him for the time ____. The grasp of the old man was so ____ that the cup trembled in his hand. “Like rich hangings in a homely house, So was his will in his old ____ body.” After his long illness he was as ____ as a child. He made but a[n] ____ attempt to defend himself.
_Wise_ implies sound and discriminating judgment, resulting from either learning or experience. _Learned_ denotes the past acquisition of much information through study. _Erudite_ means characterized by extensive or profound knowledge. _Sagacious_ implies far-sighted judgment and intuitive discernment, especially in practical matters. _Sapient_ is now of infrequent use except as applied ironically or playfully to one having or professing wisdom. _Sage_ implies deep wisdom that comes from age or experience. _Judicious_ denotes sound judgment or careful discretion in weighing a matter with reference to its merits or its consequences. _Prudent_ conveys a sense of cautious foresight in judging the future and planning for it upon the basis of the circumstances at hand. _Provident_ suggests practical foresight and careful economy in preparing for future needs. _Discreet_ denotes care or painstakingness in doing or saying the right thing at the right time, and the avoidance thereby of errors or unpleasant results.
_Sentences_: Against the time when his children would be going to college he had been ____. “Most ____ judge!” The ____ old warrior could not be deceived by any such ruse. “Be ye therefore as ____ as serpents, and harmless as doves.” The ____ advice of his elders was wasted on him. The course was ____, not rash. He was ____ in avoiding all reference to the subject. “Type of the ____, who soar but never roam, True to the kindred points of heaven and home.” Even by those scholars, those specialists, he was deemed ____. How ____ the young man is! “Where ignorance is bliss, ‘Tis folly to be ____.” Is it ____ to spend money thus lavishly? He considered the matter well and gave a most ____ answer. To spend every cent of one’s income is surely not to be ____.
All of us, at times anyhow, get out of as much work as we can. We even use the word _work_ and its synonyms loosely and indolently. Perhaps this is a literary aspect of the labor problem. If, however, we can shake off our sluggishness and exert ourselves in discriminating our terms, we shall use _work_ as a general word for effort, physical or mental, to some purposive end; _labor_ for hard, physical work; _toil_ for wearying or exhaustive work; and _drudgery_ for tedious, monotonous, or distasteful work, especially of a low or menial kind.
_Sentences_: It required the ____ of thousands of men to complete the tunnel. To be condemned to the galleys meant a life of unending ____. The man who enjoys his ____ will succeed. Twenty years of incessant ____ had extinguished in him every spark of ambition. He was weary after the ____ of the day. All ____ and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Through the heart-breaking ____ of thousands the pyramids were built to commemorate a few. He was sentenced to hard ____.
VIII
SYNONYMS IN LARGER GROUPS (2)
You have now seen enough of the method of discriminating synonyms to take more of the responsibility for such work upon yourself. In this chapter, therefore, the plan followed in Exercise A is abandoned and no discriminations are supplied you.
EXERCISE B
For some of the generic words in Exercise A you will find antonyms in Exercise C. Here is a list:
In Exercise A: walk, laugh, busy, hate, masculine, old
In Exercise C: run, cry, idle, love, feminine, young.
Now each of the generic terms in C is followed by a list of its synonyms. But for the six generic terms just given let us see how many synonyms you can find for yourself. Simply study each word in turn, think of all the synonyms for it you can summon, strike out those you consider far-fetched. Then compare your list with the list under the antonym in Exercise A; if possible, improve your list by means of this comparison. Finally, compare your revised list with the list in Exercise C.
In Exercise C are two generic terms that carry the same idea (but not in the same part of speech) as generic terms in Exercise A. They are as follows:
In Exercise A: sing, death
In Exercise C: song, die.
Take _song_ and _die_. First, find all the satisfactory synonyms you can for yourself. Then if possible improve your list by studying the list under the corresponding word in Exercise A. Finally, compare your revised list with the one in Exercise C.
EXERCISE C
After three introductory groups (dealing with thoroughly concrete ideas and words) the synonyms in this exercise are arranged alphabetically according to the first word in each group.
Discriminate the words in each group, and fill each blank in the illustrative sentences with the word that conveys the meaning exactly.
_Sentences_: The intruder he ____ in the early dawn-light might have been man or beast; he could not have ____ one from the other. After a long search I ____ on the map the name of the town. The teacher ____ the throwing of the paper wad, but thought best not to ____ it. “He that hath eyes to ____, let him ____.” I ____ the encounter. “I hope to ____ my Pilot face to face When I have crossed the bar.” “When my eyes turn to ____ for the last time the sun in heaven.” I sat by the flower and ____ the bee plunder it. The scrawl on the paper was meaningless, but at length by close attention he ____ secret writing. “Your young men shall ____ visions, and your old men shall dream dreams.” He had ____ human nature manifesting itself under various conditions.
_Sentences_: With the jawbone of an ass Samson ____ a thousand of his enemies. It was his duty as sheriff to ____ the criminal, and the method decreed by the state was that he should ____ him. Previously the method of carrying out a sentence of death had been to ____ the criminal. On our left wing we lost one man in ten: thus our lines were literally ____ On our right wing, where we advanced to the attack in the open, our men were simply ____. After the garrison had laid down its arms the Indians ____ men, women, and children. “I would not ____ thy soul.” During the French Revolution many of the nobility were ____. In the country late fall is the time to ____ hogs. Thinking that his accomplice was no longer of use, he quietly ____ him. The anarchist who had ____ the governor was taken by a mob and ____.
_Sentences_: Since he had not exerted himself beforehand, his state was one of ____ rather than one of ____. The sultry heat of the day put him into a ____. “Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the ____ syrops of the world, Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet ____ Which thou ow[n]edst yesterday.” Light and pleasant be thy ____. “And still she slept an azure-lidded ____.” From the ____ induced by his injury the physicians were unable to arouse him. “Oh ____! it is a gentle thing, Beloved from pole to pole!” “The poppied warmth of ____ oppress’d Her soothed limbs, and soul fatigued away.” In Spanish-speaking South American countries every one expects to take his ____. He lay down under the tree for a short ____ and had just fallen into a preliminary ____ when the picnic party arrived. “Macheth does murder ____, the innocent ____, ____ that knits up the ravel’d sleave of care.”
_Sentences_: A declaration of war would of course ____ the treaty. The legislature has the right to ____ old laws as well as to enact new ones. Because they left his grounds littered with paper, he ____ their privilege of holding picnics there. The king ____ the decree that the conspirators should be exiled. Slavery was ____ by the Emancipation Proclamation. The emperor ____ many of the ancient rights of the people. They ____ the mortgage when he paid the money. The violation of these provisions has ____ the contract. It was an ill day for France when the Edict of Nantes was ____ by Louis XIV. The Supreme Court ____ the decision of the lower tribunal. The Mormons have officially ____ polygamy. The codicil ____ some of the earlier provisions in his will.
_Sentences_: He ____ himself from all blame. The king ____ them from their allegiance. The teacher ____ the student who had been suspected of theft. The father confessor ____ the penitent. The jury ____ the man on the first ballot.
_Sentences:_ One child was to ____ to speak to the strangers; the other too ____ to do anything but squall. “If Caesar hide himself, shall they not whisper ‘Lo, Caesar is ____’?” Any one might have been ____ by this noise in a room said to be haunted; and for my part, I stood ____.
_Sentences:_ The judge ____ the severity of the punishment. They collected funds to ____ the sufferings of the poor. He could not ____ the wrath of the angry man. Shall we try to ____ their fears by telling them the accident may have been less calamitous than they have heard? A mustard plaster ____ the pain. The grief of the mother was ____ by the presence of her child. This experience had by no means ____ his temper.
_Sentences:_ Visitors are not ____ to see the king. The over-running of yard by the neighbors’ chickens is a nuisance I shall not ____. “____ little children to come unto me.” The use of bicycles and velocipedes on the pavement, though not ____ by the city, is good-naturedly ____ by most of the citizens. She ____ her children to play in the street.
_Sentences:_ I ____ my failure to poor judgment. He ____ sinister motives for their actions. So many ideal characteristics have been ____ to Washington that it is difficult to think of him as a man.
_Sentences:_ An elephant is ____ in its movements. Some ____ countrymen hung around the circus entrance. He was tall and ____; he seemed to be a mere prop on which clothes were hung. Isn’t that man ____ in his carriage? The fingers of the ball-players might as well have been thumbs, so ____ were they from the cold. Girls throw a ball in a[n] ____ manner.
_Sentences_: Fletcher taught people to ____ their food well. The mouse ____ the cheese, but the trap did not spring. A horse ____ his bits. When I ____ into the apple, I found that it was sour. The rat ____ a hole through the board.
_Sentences_: “____ my timbers!” the old salt exclaimed. The anaconda is an immense serpent that wraps itself about its victim and ____ it. The child blew the soap bubble wider and wider till it ____. “You may ____, you may ____ the vase if you will.” Looking closely at the eggs, she perceived that one of them was ____. With a board the thoughtless child ____ the anthill. During a violent fit of coughing he ____ a blood vessel. The thick cloud was ____ and the sunshine streamed through.
_Sentences_: A mouse must be ____ lest it be caught in a trap. He had learned to be ____ in advancing his radical opinions. The man was a Scot and therefore ____. With a ____ movement I opened the door to investigate the strange noise. He was ____ in checking up the accounts. Be extremely ____ in your behavior, for they are watching to criticize you.
_Sentences_: The king ____ them safe conduct through the country. He would not ____ to touch the money that had been gained dishonestly. His ____ manner irritated them. The master ____ to hear the complaints of the servants.
_Sentences_: He ____ the charge with positive proof. The finding of Desdemona’s handkerchief ____ Othello’s belief that she was guilty. The other witnesses ____ his testimony. The doctor ____ the appointment his assistant had made for him. He ____ his results by repeating the experiment a number of times. _Sentences_: It seemed they must be driven from their works but they held to them with the utmost ____. He had the ____ to fight an aggressive battle, but not the ____ to stand for long days upon the defensive; less still did he have the ____ to disregard unjust criticism. The silent ____ of the women who bide at home surpasses the ____ the warriors who engage in battle. He had the dashing ____ of a cavalry officer.