king was fit or unfit to rule, Parliament might not change the succession, depose a sovereign, or limit his authority in any way. James rather neatly summarized his views in a Latin epigram, _a deo rex, a rege lex_–“the king is from God and law is from the king.”
[Illustration: GOLD COIN OF JAMES I.
The first coin to bear the legend “Great Britain”.]
JAMES I AND PARLIAMENT
Naturally enough, the extreme pretensions of James encountered much opposition from Parliament. That body felt little sympathy for a ruler who proclaimed himself the source of all law. When James, always extravagant and a poor financier, came before it for money, Parliament insisted on its right to withhold supplies until grievances were redressed. James would not yield, and got along as best he could by levying customs duties, selling titles of nobility, and imposing excessive fines, in spite of the protests of Parliament. This situation continued to the end of the king’s reign.
JAMES I AND PURITANISM
A religious controversy helped to embitter the dispute between James and Parliament. The king, who was Puritanism a devout Anglican, made himself very unpopular with the Puritans, as the reformers within the Church of England were called. The Puritans had no intention of separating from the national or established Church, but they wished to “purify” it of certain customs which they described as “Romish” or “papist.” Among these were the use of the surplice, of the ring in the marriage service, and of the sign of the cross in baptism. Some Puritans wanted to get rid of the _Book of Common Prayer_ altogether. The Puritans were distinguished by their austere lives. They looked with disfavor on May Day and Christmas festivities, observed the Jewish Sabbath in all its rigor, and condemned the Anglicans who played games and danced upon the village green on Sundays. As the Puritans had a large majority in the House of Commons, it was inevitable that the parliamentary struggle against Stuart absolutism would assume in part a religious character.
[Illustration: A PURITAN FAMILY
Illustration in an edition of the _Psalms_ published in 1563 A.D.]
CHARLES I, KING, 1625-1649 A.D.
The political and religious difficulties which marked the reign of James I did not disappear when his son, Charles I, came to the throne. Charles was a true Stuart in his devotion to absolutism and divine right. Almost immediately he began to quarrel with Parliament. When that body withheld supplies, Charles resorted to forced loans from the wealthy and even imprisoned a number of persons who refused to contribute. Such arbitrary acts showed plainly that Charles would play the tyrant if he could.
PETITION OF RIGHT, 1628 A.D.
The king’s attitude at last led Parliament to a bold assertion of its authority. It now presented to Charles the celebrated Petition of Right. One of the most important clauses provided that forced loans without parliamentary sanction should be considered illegal. Another clause declared that no one should be arrested or imprisoned except according to the law of the land. The Petition thus repeated and reinforced two of the leading principles of Magna Carta. [20] The people of England, speaking this time through their elected representatives, asserted once more their right to limit the power of kings.
PERSONAL RULE OF CHARLES I, 1629-1640 A.D.
Charles signed the Petition, as the only means of securing parliamentary consent to taxation; but he had no intention of observing it. For the next eleven years he managed to govern without calling Parliament in session. The conduct of affairs during this period lay largely in the hands of Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, and William Laud, who later became archbishop of Canterbury. The king made these two men his principal advisers and through them carried on his despotic rule. Arbitrary courts, which tried cases without a jury, punished those who resisted the royal will. A rigid censorship of the press prevented any expression of popular discontent. Public meetings were suppressed as seditious riots. Even private gatherings were dangerous, for the king had swarms of spies to report any disloyal acts or utterances.
JOHN HAMPDEN AND “SHIP-MONEY”
Since Charles ruled without a Parliament, he had to adopt all sorts of devices to fill his treasury. One of these was the levying of “ship- money.” According to an old custom, seaboard towns and counties had been required to provide ships or money for the royal navy. Charles revived this custom and extended it to towns and counties lying inland. It seemed clear that the king meant to impose a permanent tax on all England without the assent of Parliament. The demand for “ship-money” aroused much opposition, and John Hampden, a wealthy squire of Buckinghamshire, refused to pay the twenty shillings levied on his estate. Hampden was tried before a court of the royal judges and was convicted by a bare majority. He became, however, the hero of the hour. The England people recognized in him one who had dared, for the sake of principle, to protest against the king’s despotic rule.
[Illustration: CHARLES I
A painting by Daniel Mytens in the National Portrait Gallery. London]
LAUD’S ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY
Archbishop Laud, the king’s chief agent in ecclesiastical matters, detested Puritanism and aimed to root it out from the Church of England. He put no Puritans to death, but he sanctioned cruel punishments of those who would not conform to the established Church. All that the dungeon and the pillory, mutilation and loss of position, could do to break their will was done. While the restrictions on Puritans were increased, those affecting Roman Catholics were relaxed. Many people thought that Charles, through Laud and the bishops, was preparing to lead the Church of England back to Rome. They therefore opposed the king on religious grounds, as well as for political reasons.
[Illustration: EXECUTION OF THE EARL OF STRAFFORD After a contemporary print. The Tower of London is seen in the background.]
THE LONG PARLIAMENT, 1640 A.D.
But the personal rule of Charles was now drawing to an end. In 1637 A.D. the king, supported by Archbishop Laud, tried The Long to introduce a modified form of the English prayer book into Scotland. The Scotch, Presbyterian [21] to the core, drew up a national oath, or Covenant, by which they bound themselves to resist any attempt to change their religion. Rebellion quickly passed into open war, and the Covenanters invaded northern England. Charles, helpless, with a seditious army and an empty treasury, had to summon Parliament in session. It met in 1640 A.D. and did not formally dissolve till twenty years later. Hence it has received the name of the Long Parliament.
[Illustration: Map, ENGLAND AND WALES–THE CIVIL WARS OF THE 17TH CENTURY]
REFORMS OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT
The Long Parliament no sooner assembled than it assumed the conduct of government. The leaders, including John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, openly declared that the House of Commons, and not the king, possessed supreme authority in the state. Parliament began by executing Strafford and subsequently Laud, thus emphasizing the responsibility of ministers to Parliament. Next, it abolished Star Chamber and other special courts, which had become engines of royal oppression. It forbade the levying of “ship-money” and other irregular taxes. It took away the king’s right of dissolving Parliament at his pleasure and ordered that at least one parliamentary session should be held every three years. These measures stripped the crown of the despotic powers acquired by the Tudors and the Stuarts.
246. OLIVER CROMWELL AND THE CIVIL WAR, 1642-1649 A.D.
OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT REBELLION, 1642 A.D.
Thus far, the Long Parliament had acted along the line of reformation rather than revolution. Had Charles been content to accept the new arrangements, there would have been little more trouble. But the proud and imperious king was only watching his chance to strike a blow at Parliament. Taking advantage of some differences in opinion among its members, Charles summoned his soldiers, marched to Westminister, and demanded the surrender of five leaders, including Pym and Hampden. Warned in time, they made their escape, and Charles did not find them in the chamber of the Commons. “Well, I see all the birds are flown,” he exclaimed, and walked out baffled. The king’s attempt to intimidate the Commons was a great blunder. It showed beyond doubt that he would resort to force, rather than bend his neck to Parliament. Both Charles and Parliament now began to gather troops and prepare for the inevitable conflict.
“CAVALIERS” AND “ROUND-HEADS”
The opposing parties seemed to be very evenly matched. Around the king rallied nearly all of the nobles, the Anglican clergy, the Roman Catholics, a majority of the “squires,” or country gentry, and the members of the universities. The royalists received the name of “Cavaliers.” The parliamentarians, or “Roundheads,” [22] were mostly recruited from the trading classes in the towns and the small landowners in the country. The working people remained as a rule indifferent and took little part in the struggle.
[Illustration: OLIVER CROMWELL
A painting by Robert Walker, in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
OLIVER CROMWELL, 1599-1658 A.D.
Both Pym and Hampden died in the second year of the war, and henceforth the leadership of the parliamentary party fell to Oliver Cromwell. He was a country gentleman from the east of England, and Hampden’s cousin. Cromwell represented the university of Cambridge in the Long Parliament and displayed there great audacity in opposing the government. An unfriendly critic at this time describes “his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untuneable, and his eloquence full of fervor.” Though a zealous Puritan, who believed himself in all sincerity to be the chosen agent of the Lord, Cromwell was not an ascetic. He hunted, hawked, played bowls, and other games, had an ear for music, and valued art and learning. In public life he showed himself a statesman of much insight and a military genius.
THE “IRONSIDES” AND THE “NEW MODEL”
At the outset of the war fortune favored the royalists, until Cromwell took the field. To him was due the formation of a cavalry regiment of “honest, sober Christians,” whose watchwords were texts from Scripture and who charged in battle while singing psalms. These “Ironsides,” as Cromwell said, “had the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what they did.” They were so successful that Parliament permitted Cromwell to reorganize a large part of the army into the “New Model,” a body of professional, highly disciplined soldiers. The “New Model” defeated Charles decisively at the battle of Naseby, near the center of England (1645 A.D.). Charles then surrendered to the Scotch, who soon turned him over to Parliament.
PRESYBTERIANS AND INDEPENDENTS
The surrender of the king ended the Great Rebellion, but left the political situation in doubt. By this time the Puritans had divided into two rival parties. The Presbyterians wished to make the Church of England, like that of Scotland, Presbyterian in faith and worship. Through their control of Parliament, they were able to pass acts doing away with bishops, forbidding the use of the _Book of Common Prayer_, and requiring every one to accept Presbyterian doctrines. The other Puritan party, known as the Independents, [23] felt that religious beliefs should not be a matter of compulsion. They rejected both Anglicanism and Presbyterianism and desired to set up churches of their own, where they might worship as seemed to them right. The Independents had the powerful backing of Cromwell and the “New Model,” so that the stage was set for a quarrel between Parliament and the army.
“PRIDE’S PURGE,” 1648 A.D.
King Charles, though a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, hoped to find profit in their divisions. The Presbyterian majority in the House of Commons was willing to restore the king, provided he would give his assent to the establishment of Presbyterianism in England. But the army wanted no reconciliation with the captive monarch and at length took matters into its own hand. A party of soldiers, under the command of a Colonel Pride, excluded the Presbyterian members from the floor of the House, leaving the Independents alone to conduct the government. This action is known as “Pride’s Purge.” Cromwell approved of it, and from this time he became the real ruler of England.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF WESTMINSTER HALL Next to the Tower and the Abbey Westminster Hall adjoining the Houses of Parliament, is the most historic building in London. The hall was begun by William Rufus in 1097 A.D. and was enlarged by his successors. Richard II in 1397 A.D. added the great oak roof, which has lasted to this day Here were held the trials of Stafford and Charles I.]
EXECUTION OF CHARLES I, 1649 A.D.
The “Rump Parliament,” as the remnant of the House of Commons was called, immediately brought the king before a High Court of Justice composed of his bitterest enemies. He refused to acknowledge the right of the court to try him and made no defense whatever. Charles was speedily convicted and sentenced to be beheaded, “as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good of the people.” He met death with quiet dignity and courage on a scaffold erected in front of Whitehall Palace in London. The king’s execution went far beyond the wishes of most Englishmen; “cruel necessity” formed its only justification; but it established once for all in England the principle that rulers are responsible to their subjects.
247. THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE, 1649-1660 A.D.
ENGLAND A REPUBLIC
Shortly after the execution of Charles I the “Rump Parliament” abolished the House of Lords and the office of king. It named a Council of State, most of whose members were chosen from the House of Commons, to carry on the government. England now became a commonwealth, or national republic, the first in the history of the world. It is clear that this republic was the creation of a minority. The Anglicans, the Presbyterians, and the Roman Catholics were willing to restore the monarchy, but as long as the power lay with the army, the small sect of Independents could impose its will on the great majority of the English people.
SUBJECTION OF IRELAND
Besides confusion and discontent at home, many dangers confronted the Commonwealth abroad. In both Ireland and Scotland Prince Charles, the oldest son of the dead sovereign, had been proclaimed king. But Cromwell rose to the emergency. Invading Ireland with his trained soldiers, he captured town after town, slaughtered many royalists, and shipped many more to the West Indies as slaves. This time Ireland was completely subdued, at a cost, from fighting, famine, and pestilence, of the lives of a third of its population. Cromwell confiscated the land of those who had supported the royalist cause and planted colonies of English Protestants in Ulster, Leinster, and Munster. The Roman Catholic gentry were compelled to remove beyond the Shannon River to unfruitful Connaught. Even there the public exercise of their religion was forbidden them. Cromwell’s harsh measures brought peace to Ireland, but only intensified the hatred felt by Irish Roman Catholics for Protestant England. [24]
SCOTLAND SUBDUED
While Cromwell was still in Ireland, Prince Charles, who had been living as an exile at the French court, came to Scotland. On his promise to be a Presbyterian king the whole nation agreed to support him. Cromwell, in two pitched battles, broke up the Scotch armies and compelled Prince Charles to seek safety in flight. After thrilling adventures the prince managed to reach his asylum in France. Cromwell treated the Scotch with leniency, but took away their Parliament and united their country with England in a single state.
[Illustration: Map, IRELAND In the 16th Century]
DISSOLUTION OF THE “RUMP PARLIAMENT,” 1653 A.D.
Meanwhile, the “Rump Parliament” had become more and more unpopular. The army, which had saved England from Stuart despotism, did not relish the spectacle of a small group of men, many of them selfish and corrupt, presuming to govern the country Cromwell found them “horridly arbitrary” and at last resolved to have done with them. He entered the House of Commons with a band of musketeers and ordered the members home. “Come, come,” he cried, “I will put an end to your prating. You are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament. I will put an end to your sitting.” Another Parliament, chosen by Cromwell and the army, proved equally incapable. After a few months’ rule it resigned its authority into the hands of Cromwell.
[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH (REDUCED) The reverse represents the House of Commons in session.]
THE INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT
By force of circumstances Cromwell had become a virtual dictator, but he had no love of absolute power. He therefore accepted a so-called Instrument of Government, drawn up by some of his officers. It provided that Cromwell should be Lord Protector for life, with the assistance of a council and a Parliament. The Instrument is notable as the first written constitution of a modern nation. It is the only one which England has ever had.
CROMWELL AS LORD PROTECTOR, 1653-1658 A.D.
As Lord Protector in name, though a king in fact, Cromwell ruled England for five years. He got along with Parliament no better than the Stuarts had done, but his successful conduct of foreign affairs gave England an importance in the councils of Europe which it had not enjoyed since the time of Elizabeth. Cromwell died in 1658 A.D. Two years later the nation, weary of military rule, restored Charles II to the throne of his ancestors.
THE PURITAN REVOLUTION
It seemed, indeed, as if the Puritan Revolution had been a complete failure. But this was hardly true. The revolution arrested the growth of absolutism in England. It created among Englishmen a lasting hostility to absolute power, whether exercised by King, Parliament, Protector, or army. And, furthermore, it sent forth into the world ideas of political liberty, which, during the eighteenth century, helped to produce the American and French revolutions.
248. THE RESTORATION AND THE “GLORIOUS REVOLUTION,” 1660-1689 A.D.
REIGN OF CHARLES II, 1660-1685 A.D.
Charles II, on mounting the throne, pledged himself to maintain Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and other statutes limiting the royal power. The people of England wished to be governed by the king, but they also wished that the king should govern by the advice of Parliament. Charles, less obstinate and more astute than his father, recognized this fact, and, when a conflict threatened with his ministers or Parliament, always avoided it by timely concessions. Whatever happened, he used to say, he was resolved “never to set on his travels again.” Charles’s charm of manner, wit, and genial humor made him a popular monarch, in spite of his grave faults of character. One of his own courtiers well described him as a king who “never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one.”
REACTION AGAINST PURITANISM
The period of the Restoration was characterized by a reaction against the austere scheme of life which the Puritans had imposed on society. Puritanism not only deprived the people of evil pleasures, such as bear- baiting, Cock-fighting, and tippling, but it also prohibited the Sunday dances and games, the village festivals, and the popular drama. When Puritanism disappeared, the people went to the opposite extreme and cast off all restraint. In this the king, who had lived long at the gay court of Louis XIV, set the example. England was nevermore merry and never less moral than under its “Merry Monarch.”
[Illustration: BOYS’ SPORTS
From a book of 1659 A.D.]
THE DISSENTERS
The Restoration brought back the Church of England, together with the Stuarts. Parliament, more intolerant than the king, passed an Act of Uniformity, which made the use of the _Book of Common Prayer_ compulsory and required all ministers to express their consent to everything contained in it. Nearly two thousand clergymen resigned their positions rather than obey the act. Among them were found Presbyterians, Independents (or Congregationalists), Baptists, and Quakers. These Puritans, since they did not accept the national Church, were henceforth classed as Dissenters. [25] They might not hold meetings for worship, or teach in schools, or accept any public office. For many years the Dissenters had to endure harsh persecution.
HABEAS CORPUS ACT, 1679 A.D.
One of the most important events belonging to the reign of Charles II was the passage by Parliament of the Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of _habeas corpus_ [26] is an order, issued by a judge, requiring a person held in custody to be brought before the court. If upon examination there appears to be good reason for keeping the prisoner, he is to be remanded for trial; otherwise he is to be freed or released on bail. This writ had been long used in England, and one of the clauses of Magna Carta expressly provided against arbitrary imprisonment. It had always been possible, however, for the king or his ministers to order the arrest of a person considered dangerous to the state, without making any formal charge against him. The Habeas Corpus Act established the principle that every man, not charged with or convicted of a known crime, is entitled to personal freedom. Most of the British possessions where the Common law prevails have accepted the act, and it has been adopted by the federal and state legislatures of the United States.
[Illustration: SILVER CROWN OF CHARLES II]
WHIGS AND TORIES
The reign of Charles II also saw the beginning of the modern party system in Parliament. Two opposing parties took shape, very largely out of a religious controversy. The king, from his long life in France, had become partial to Roman Catholicism, though he did not formally embrace that faith until at the moment of death. His brother James, the heir to the throne, became an open Roman Catholic, however, much to the disgust of many members of Parliament. A bill was now brought forward to exclude Prince James from the succession, because of his conversion. Its supporters received the nickname of Whigs, while those who opposed it were called Tories. [27] The bill did not pass the House of Lords, but the two parties in Parliament continued to divide on other questions. They survive to-day as the Liberals and the Conservatives, and still dispute the government of England between them.
REIGN OF JAMES II, 1685-1688 A.D.
James II was without the attractive personality which had made his brother a popular ruler; moreover, he was an avowed Roman Catholic and a staunch believer in the divine right of kings. During his three years’ reign, James managed to make enemies of most of his Protestant subjects. He “suspended” the laws against Roman Catholics and appointed them to positions of authority and influence. James also dismissed Parliament and supported himself with subsidies from Louis XIV. At last a number of Whig and Tory leaders, representing both parties in Parliament, invited that sturdy Protestant, William of Orange, [28] to rescue England from Stuart absolutism.
ACCESSION OF WILLIAM AND MARY, 1689 A.D.
William landed in England with a small army and marched unopposed to London. The wretched king, deserted by his courtiers and his soldiers, soon found himself Harness alone. He fled to France, where he lived the remainder of his days as a pensioner at the court of Louis XIV. Parliament granted the throne conjointly to William and Mary, William to rule during his lifetime and Mary to have the succession, should she survive him.
THE BILL OF RIGHTS
In settling the crown on William and Mary, Parliament took care to safeguard its own authority and the of Protestant religion. It enacted the Bill of Rights, which has a place by the side of Magna Carta and the Petition of Right among the great documents of English constitutional history. This act decreed that the sovereign must henceforth be a member of the Anglican Church. It forbade the sovereign to “suspend” the operation of the laws, or to levy money or maintain a standing army except by consent of Parliament. It also declared that election of members of Parliament ought to be free; that they ought to enjoy freedom of speech and action within the two Houses; and that excessive bail ought not to be required, or excessive fines imposed, or cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Finally, it affirmed the right of subjects to petition the sovereign and ordered the holding of frequent Parliaments. These were not new principles of political liberty, but now the English people were strong enough not only to assert, but also to uphold them. They reappear in the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States.
THE TOLERATION ACT
At this time, also, England took an important step in the direction of religious liberty. Parliament passed a Toleration Act, conceding to the Dissenters the right of worship, though not the right of holding any civil or military office. The Dissenters might now serve their God as they pleased, without fear of persecution. Unitarians and Roman Catholics, as well as Jews, were expressly excluded from the benefits of the act. The passage of this measure did much to remove religion from English politics as a vital issue.
THE “GLORIOUS REVOLUTION”
The revolution of 1688-89 A.D. thus struck a final blow at absolutism and divine right in England. An English king became henceforth the servant of Parliament, holding office only on good behavior. An act of Parliament had made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the revolution was not a popular movement. It was a successful struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper and middle classes–the nobles, squires, merchants, and clergy. England now had a “limited” or “constitutional” monarchy controlled by the aristocracy. Not till the nineteenth century did the common people succeed in establishing a really democratic government in England.
249. ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
SOCIAL ENGLAND
The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded five millions, of whom at least two-thirds lived in the country. Except for London there were only four towns of more than ten thousand inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and chocolate competed with wine, ale, and beer as beverages; the first newspapers appeared, generally in weekly editions; amusements multiplied; and passenger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers. The traveler found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and the absence of canals. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive, and in remote country districts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the metropolis.
[Illustration: A LONDON BELLMAN
Title-page of a tract published in 1616 A.D. It was part of the duties of a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out the hours, the state of the weather, and other information as he passed by.]
ECONOMIC ENGLAND
As the population of England increased, old industries developed and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk flourished after the influx of Huguenots which followed the revocation [29] of the Edict of Nantes. The absence of large textile mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives. The vast mineral deposits, which in later times became the main source of England’s prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep and cattle still remained the principal occupations. But agriculture was retarded by the old system of common tillage and open fields, just as industry was fettered by the trade monopoly of the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared.
[Illustration: COACH AND SEDAN CHAIR
Title-page of a tract published in 1636 A.D.]
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance in science. At this time Harvey revealed the circulation of the blood. [30] Napier, a Scotchman, invented logarithms, which lie at the basis of the higher mathematics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the “father of modern chemistry,” so many were his researches in that field of knowledge. Far greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation and the differential calculus. During the Civil War a group of students interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Society. It still exists and enrolls among its members the most distinguished scientists of England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration. Altogether much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature.
[Illustration: DEATH MASK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON. In the possession of the Royal Society of London.]
PROGRESS OF ART
Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were welcomed there. Among architects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building. [31] A great fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well as St. Paul’s Cathedral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral bears the famous inscription: _Si monumentum requieris, circumspice_: “If you seek his monument, look around you.”
LITERATURE
English literature in the seventeenth century covered many fields. Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief literary ornaments of the Elizabethan Age, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 A.D. appeared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King James Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The simplicity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been excelled, and it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English- speaking world. [32] The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of _Paradise Lost_ during the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal _Pilgrim’s Progress_, a book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a few of the eminent poets and prose writers of the age.
POSITION OF ENGLAND
Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth century formed a noteworthy period in English history. England until this time had been, on the whole, a follower rather than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check administered to the aggressive designs of Louis XIV were so many indications that England had risen to a place of first importance in European affairs. During this century, too, the American colonies of England began to lay the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New World.
STUDIES
1. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c) the “Glorious Revolution,” and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
2. For what were the following men notable: Pym; Bossuet; duke of Marlborough; Louvois; Hampden; Mazarin; William III; and Colbert?
3. Explain and illustrate the following terms: (a) balance of power; (b) budget system; (c) absolutism; (d) writ of _habeas corpus_; (e) militarism; (f) “ship money,” and (g) Star Chamber.
4. Compare the theory of the divine right of kings with the medieval theory of the papal supremacy.
5. In what European countries do kings still rule by divine right?
6. What is the essential distinction between a “limited” or “constitutional” monarchy and an “absolute” or “autocratic” monarchy?
7. Why is it very desirable for the United States to adopt the budget system?
8. After what French king was Louisiana named?
9. Why did the French language in the seventeenth century become the language of fashion and diplomacy? Is this still the case?
10. “The age of Louis XIV in France is worthy to stand by the side of the age of Pericles in Greece and of Augustus in Italy.” Does this statement appear to be justified?
11. How does the preservation of the balance of power help to explain the Great European War?
12. By reference to the map on page 699 show how far the “natural boundaries” of France were attained during the reign of Louis XIV.
13. How did the condition of Germany after 1648 A.D. facilitate the efforts of Louis XIV to extend the French frontiers to the Rhine?
14. Show that in the Peace of Utrecht nearly all the contestants profited at the expense of Spain.
15. Explain: “Rump Parliament”; “Pride’s Purge”; the “New Model”; the “Ironsides”; “Cavalier”; and “Roundhead.”
16. What circumstances gave rise to (a) the Petition of Right; (b) the Institute of Government; (c) the Habeas Corpus Act; and (d) the Bill of Rights?
17. Why were the reformers within the Church of England called “Puritans”?
18. Contrast the Commonwealth as a national republic with the Athenian and Roman city-states, the medieval Italian cities, the Swiss Confederation, and the United Netherlands.
19. Under what circumstances does the Constitution of the United States provide for the suspension of the writ of _habeas corpus_?
20. Why has the Bill of Rights been called the “third great charter of English liberty”?
21. Show that the revolution of 1688 A.D. was a “preserving” and not a “destroying” revolution.
22. How did the revolution of 1688 A.D. affect the fortunes of Louis XIV?
23. Why did it prove more difficult to establish a despotic monarchy in England than in France during the seventeenth century?
24. What is the present population of England? of “Greater London?”
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter xxv, “Characters and Episodes of the Great Rebellion”; chapter xxvi, “Oliver Cromwell”; chapter xxvii, “English Life and Manners under the Restoration”; chapter xxviii, “Louis XIV and his Court.”
[2] _Hamlet_, iv, Y,123.
[3] _King Richard the Second_, in, ii, 54-57.
[4] _Politics as derived from the Very Words of the Holy Scriptures_. This work was prepared for the use of the young son of Louis XIV, the French king.
[5] See pages 682, 684.
[6] “_L’Etat, c’est moi._”
[7] See page 514, 515.
[8] See page 681.
[9] See page 597, note 4.
[10] See page 601.
[11] See page 573.
[12] In America the war was known as “King William’s War.”
[13] In 1689 A.D. he ascended the English throne as William III. See page 720.
[14] In America the war was known as “Queen Anne’s War.”
[15] See page 315, note 2
[16] His great-grandson, then a child of five years. The reign of Louis XV covered the period 1715-1774 A.D.
[17] See pages 518-519, 658, 675-676.
[18] See page 507.
[19] See page 511, note 1, 676 and note 1.
[20] See page 505.
[21] See page 657, 664, note 1, 676.
[22] So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in contrast to the flowing locks of the “Cavaliers.”
[23] Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationalists.
[24] See pages 511, 676.
[25] Or Noncomformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants not members of the Anglican Church.
[26] A Latin phrase meaning “You may have the body.”
[27] Whig had originally been applied to rebellious Presbyterians in Scotland; Tory had designated Roman Catholic outlaws in Ireland.
[28] See page 701. William had married James’s eldest daughter, Mary.
[29] See page 696.
[30] See page 609.
[31] See page 597.
[32] Many important corrections were embodied in the Revised Version, published in 1881-1885 A.D. by a committee of English scholars.
APPENDIX
TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES
Before 1000 B.C., and in some instances even later, nearly all dates must be regarded as merely approximate.
(Specially important dates are in italics)
THE ORIENT
B.C.
3400 _Menes, king of Egypt_
3000-2500 The pyramid kings
2000 _Hammurabi, king of Babylonia_ 1800-1600 Rule of the Hyksos in Egypt 1292-1225 Rameses II, king of Egypt 1035-925 The undivided Hebrew monarchy Saul, 1035-1015
David, 985-955
Solomon, 955-925
925-722 Kingdom of Israel
925-586 Kingdom of Judea
722-705 Sargon II, king of Assyria 705-681 Sennacherib, king of Assyria 606 _Destruction of Nineveh_
604-561 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia 553-465 Persian kings
Cyrus the Great, 553-529 Cambyses, 529-522
Darius I, 521-485
Xerxes I, 485-465
539 _Capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Great_
GREECE
B.C.
1600-1100 The Aegean Age
1100-750 Homeric Age
776 _First recorded Olympiad_ 750-500 Period of colonial expansion 594-593 Reforms of Solon
560-527 Tyranny of Pisistratus 508-507 Reforms of Clisthenes
499-493 Ionian Revolt
490 _Battle of Marathon_
480 _Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis_ 479 _Battles of Plataea and Mycale_ 477-454 Delian League
461-429 Age of Pericles
431-404 _The Peloponnesian War_ 404-371 Spartan supremacy
401-400 _Expedition of the “Ten Thousand”_ 371-362 Supremacy of Thebes
371 _Battle of Leuctra_
362 Battle of Mantinea
359-336 Philip II, king of Macedonia 338 _Battle of Chaeronea_
336-323 Reign of Alexander the Great 335 Destruction of Thebes
334 Battle of the Granicus 333 Battle of Issus
332 Siege of Tyre; founding of Alexandria 331 _Battle of Arbela_
323 _Death of Alexander_
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
B.C.
753(?) _Founding of Rome_
753(?)-509(?) Legendary Roman kings 509(?) Establishment of the republic 449 Laws of the Twelve Tables
390(?) _Battle of the Allia; capture of Rome by the Gauls_
340-338 Latin War; dissolution of the Latin League 327-290 Samnite Wars
281-272 War between Rome and Tarentum; invasion of Pyrrhus 264-241 _First Punic War_
218-201 _Second Punic War_
216 Battle of Cannae
202 _Battle of Zama_
201 Peace between Rome and Carthage 197 Macedonia becomes a dependent ally of Rome 190 Syria becomes a dependent ally of Rome 149-146 Third Punic War
146 _Destruction of Carthage and Corinth; Africa and Macedonia become Roman provinces_ 133 Acquisition of the province of Asia; final subjugation of Spain
133 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus 123-122 Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus 112-106 Jugurthine War
102-101 Invasion of the Germans 90-88 The Social War
88-84 War with Mithridates 83-82 Civil War between Marius and Sulla 82-79 Dictatorship of Sulla
70 Impeachment of Verres
67 Pompey and the war with the pirates 63 _Conspiracy of Catiline_
60-53 First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 58-50 Conquest of Gaul by Caesar 53 Defeat of Crassus by the Parthians at Carrhae 48 Battle of Pharsalus
44 _Assassination of Caesar_ 43 Second Triumvirate: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian 42 Battles of Philippi
31 _Battle of Actium_
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
31 B.C.-68 A.D. The Julian and Claudian Caesars Augustus, 31 B.C.-I4 A.D.
Tiberius, 14-37
Gaius (Caligula), 37-41 Claudius, 41-54
Nero 54-68
27 Octavian receives the title _Augustus_ 4(?) Birth of Christ
A.D.
43-85 Conquest of Britain
64 The Great Fire in Rome; Nero’s persecution of the Christians
68-69 The year of military revolution; Galba, Otho, and Vitellius emperors
69-96 The Flavian Caesars
Vespasian, 69-79
Titus, 79-81
Domitian, 81-96
70 Capture of Jerusalem by Titus 79 _Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum_ 96-180 The “Good Emperors”
Nerva, 96-98
Trajan, 98-117
Hadrian, 117-138
Antoninus Pius, 138-161 Marcus Aurelius, 161-180
101-106 Conquest of Dacia by Trajan 180-284 The “Soldier Emperors”
Commodus, 180-192
Septimius Severus, 193-211 Aurelian, 270-275
212 _Edict of Caracalla_
227 Rise of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire 284 _Reorganization of the Roman Empire by Diocletian_ 284-395 The “Absolute Emperors”
/Diocletian, 284-305
\Maximian, 286-305
Constantine I, 306-337 (sole emperor, 324-337)
Julian, 361-363
Theodosius I (East), 379-395 311 Edict of Galerius
312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge 313 _Edict of Milan_
325 _Council of Nicaea_
326 330 Removal of the capital to Constantinople 376 The Visigoths cross the Danube 378 Battle of Adrianople
395 _Death of Theodosius I_ 410 _Capture of Rome by Alaric_ 415-711 Visigothic kingdom in Spain (in Gaul, 415-507) 429-534 Vandal kingdom in Africa 443-534 Kingdom of the Burgundians 449 Invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons 451 _Battle of Chalons_
455 Sack of Rome by the Vandals 476 _Deposition of Romulus Angustulus_
THE MIDDLE AGES
486 Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons 493-553 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy 496 _Clovis accepts Christianity_ 527-565 Justinian, Roman emperor in the East 529(?) Rule of St. Benedict
568-774 Lombards in Italy
590-604 Pontificate of Gregory the Great 597 Augustine’s mission to the Anglo-Saxons 610-641 Heraclius, Roman emperor in the East 622 _The Hegira_
632-661 The “Orthodox Caliphs” 661-750 The Ommiad Caliphs
711 Arabs and Berbers invade Spain 716-717 Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs 732 _Battle of Tours_
750-1058 The Abbassid Caliphs 768-814 Reign of Charlemagne
800 _Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans_ 829 England united under Egbert 843 Treaty of Verdun
862(?) Northmen under Ruric settle in Russia 870 Treaty of Mersen
871-901(?) Reign of Alfred the Great 911 Northmen settle in northwestern France (Normandy) 962 _Otto the Great crowned Holy Roman Emperor_ 982 Greenland discovered
987-996 Reign of Hugh Capet 988 Christianity introduced into Russia 1000(?) Vinland discovered
1016 England conquered by Canute 1054 Final rupture of Greek and Roman churches 1066 _Battle of Hastings; Norman conquest of England_ 1066-1087 William I, the Conqueror, king of England 1073-1085 Pontificate of Gregory VII 1077 Humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa 1090-1153 St. Bernard
1095-1291 The Crusades
1095 _Council of Clermont_ 1099 Capture of Jerusalem
1147-1149 Second Crusade
1189-1192 Third Crusade
1202-1204 Fourth Crusade; sack of Constantinople 1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople 1291 _Fall of Acre; end of the crusades_ 1122 Concordat of Worms
1152-1190 Reign of Frederick I, Barbarossa 1154-1189 Henry II, king of England 1180-1223 Philip II, Augustus, king of France 1181(?)-1226 St. Francis of Assisi
1198-1216 Pontificate of Innocent III 1206-1227 Mongol conquests under Jenghiz Khan 1215 _Magna Carta_
1226-1270 Louis IX, the Saint, king of France 1230 Union of Leon and Castile
1237-1240 Mongol conquest of Russia 1254-1273 The Interregnum
1261 Fall of Latin Empire of Constantinople 1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo
1272-1307 Edward I, king of England 1273 _Rudolf of Hapsburg becomes Holy Roman Emperor_ 1285-1314 Philip IV, the Fair, king of France 1291 First Swiss Confederation
1295 “Model Parliament” of Edward I 1309-1377 “Babylonian Captivity” of the Papacy 1314 Battle of Bannockburn
1337-1453 Hundred Years’ War
1346 Battle of Crecy
1356 Battle of Poitiers
1429 Joan of Arc appears
1348-1349 Black Death in Europe 1378-1417 The “Great Schism”
1381 Peasants’ Revolt in England 1396 Greek first taught at Florence 1405 Death of Timur the Lame
1415 John Huss burned
TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES
1453 _Constantinople captured by the Ottoman Turks_ 1455-1485 War of the Roses
1461-1483 Louis XI, king of France 1462-1505 Ivan III, the Great, tsar of Russia 1476 Caxton’s printing press set up in England 1479 Castile and Aragon united under Ferdinand and Isabella
1485-1509 Henry VII, king of England 1488 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz 1492 _America discovered by Columbus_ 1497 North America rediscovered by John Cabot 1498 _Vasco da Gama reaches India_ 1513 Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa 1517-1555 Reformation in Germany
1517 _The Ninety-five Theses_ 1520 Burning of the papal bull 1521 Edict of Worms
1555 Peace of Augsburg
1519-1521 Mexico conquered by Cortes 1519-1522 Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe 1519-1556 Reign of Charles V
1531-1537 Peru conquered by Pizarro 1533-1558 Reformation in England
1534 Jesuit order founded by Loyola 1545-1563 Council of Trent
1556-1598 Reign of Philip II
1558-1603 Elizabeth, queen of England 1568-1609 Revolt of the Netherlands 1571 Battle of Lepanto
1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 1579 Union of Utrecht
1588 _Defeat of the Spanish Armada_ 1589-1610 Henry IV, king of France 1598 _Edict of Nantes_
1600 English East India Company chartered 1603-1625 Reign of James I
1607 Colonization of Virginia; Jamestown founded 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible 1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War
1625-1649 Reign of Charles I
1628 The Petition of Right 1630-1640 Puritan exodus to Massachusetts 1640 Meeting of the Long Parliament 1642-1649 The Great Rebellion
1643-1715 Louis XIV, king of France 1648 _Peace of Westphalia_
1649 Execution of Charles I 1649-1660 The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 1651 First Navigation Act
1660 Restoration of Charles II 1688-1689 _The “Glorious Revolution”_ 1692 Salem witchcraft persecution 1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession 1713 _Peace of Utrecht_
1744-1748 “King George’s War” 1754-1763 “French and Indian War”
1763 _Peace of Paris_