into West Virginia. 2. On the night that the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan, General Butler, with thirty thousand men, ascended the James River, under the protection of gunboats, and landed at Bermuda Hundred. After some trifling successes, he was surprised in a dense fog by Beauregard, and driven back into his defences with considerable loss. Beauregard then threw intrenchments across the narrow strip which connects Bermuda Hundred with the main land, and, as Grant tersely said, “hermetically sealed up” the Union force from any further advance. 3. General Sheridan, while the army was at Spottsylvania, passed in the rear of the Confederate position, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured four hundred prisoners _en route_, and defeated a cavalry force with the loss of their leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry officer in the South.]
[Illustration: GRANT’S CAMPAIGN AROUND RICHMOND.]
ATTACK ON PETERSBURG.–Grant now rapidly pushed his army over the James, and fell upon Petersburg; but here again Lee was ahead, and the works could not be forced. Grant was therefore compelled to throw up intrenchments and sit down in front of the Confederate lines. The campaign now resolved itself into a siege of Richmond, with Petersburg as its advanced post.
_The Effect_.–The campaign had cost the Union army at least seventy thousand men, and the Confederates about forty thousand.
[Footnote: The above statement of losses is founded upon the generally-accepted authorities; but Grant has lately asserted that his total loss was only about 39,000, while Southern writers place Lee’s at 18,000.]
The weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pitted against the almost exhaustless resources of the North. Grant’s plan was to keep constantly hammering Lee’s army, conscious that it was the last hope of the Confederacy. The idea of thus annihilating an army was terrible, yet it seemed the only way of closing the awful struggle.
THE SIEGE OF RICHMOND continued until the spring campaign of 1865. It was marked by two important events:
1. _Mine Explosion_ (July 30).–From a hidden ravine in front of Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a strong Confederate fort. Just at dawn, the blast of eight thousand pounds of powder was fired. Several cannon, the garrison of three hundred men, and huge masses of earth, were thrown high in air. The Federal guns opened fire at once along the entire line. An assaulting column rushed forward, but stopped in the crater produced by the explosion. The Confederates, rallying from their confusion, concentrated from every side and poured shot and shell upon the struggling mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. To retreat was only less dangerous than to stay, yet many of the soldiers jumped out of this slaughter-pen and ran headlong back to the Union lines. The Federals lost about four thousand men in this ill-starred affair.
2. _Attack upon the Weldon Railroad_ (August 18).–By threatening Richmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee to move troops to that city from Petersburg. The opportunity was at once seized, and the Weldon Railroad captured. Lee, aware of the great importance of that means of communication with the South, for several days made most desperate attempts for its recovery. They were, however, unsuccessful, and the Union lines were permanently advanced to this point.
[Footnote: An attempt was made by Grant to take this road when he first swung south of Richmond, but he was repulsed with a loss of nearly four thousand men. That this event was not mentioned in the military report, and has not received a specific name, shows the enormous proportions the war had assumed, and how changed it was from the time when Big Bethel and Ball’s Bluff were esteemed important battles.]
EARLY’S RAID.–Hunter’s retreat (p. 262) having laid open the Shenandoah Valley, Lee took advantage of it to threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from the siege of Richmond. General Early, with twenty thousand men, accordingly hurried along this oft-traveled route. Defeating General Wallace at _Monocacy River_, he appeared before _Fort Stevens_, one of the defences of Washington (July 10). Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured the city; but he stopped a day. Reinforcements having now arrived, he was compelled to retreat, and, laden with booty, he rapidly recrossed the Potomac. Not being pursued, he returned, and sent a party of cavalry into Pennsylvania. They entered Chambersburg, and, on failing to obtain a ransom of $500,000, set fire to the village, and escaped safely back into the Shenandoah.
[Illustration: RESCUE OF THE UNION FLEET IN THE RED RIVER (Note, p 265)]
SHERIDAN’S CAMPAIGN–Sheridan was now put in command of all the troops in this region. He defeated Early at _Winchester_ and _Fisher’s Hill_, and in a week destroyed half his army, and sent the rest “whirling up the valley of the Shenandoah.”
[Footnote: In order to prevent any further raids upon Washington from this direction, Sheridan devastated the valley so thoroughly that it was said that “if a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah, he must carry his provisions with him.”]
Early was quickly reinforced, and returning during Sheridan’s absence, surprised his army at _Cedar Creek_ (October 19), and drove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at this critical moment, ordered an immediate advance, and attacking the Confederates, now busy plundering the captured camp, routed them with great slaughter.
[Footnote: Early’s attack was made under cover of a dense fog and the darkness of the early morning. The Union troops were driven four miles. General Wright, their commander, though wounded, still remained on the field, and managed to get his troops into a new position in the rear. Sheridan heard the cannonading thirteen miles away, at Winchester. Knowing the importance of his presence, he put spurs to his coal-black steed, and never drew rein until, his horse covered with foam, he dashed upon the battle-field. Riding down the lines, he shouted, “Turn, boys, turn; we’re going back.” Under the magnetism of his presence, the fugitives followed him back to the fight and victory.]
_The Effect_.–This campaign of only a month was one of the most brilliant of the war. Sheridan lost seventeen thousand men, but he virtually destroyed Early’s army. This was the last attempt to threaten Washington.
[Footnote: Troops having been sent from Vicksburg to join the Red River expedition, West Tennessee and Kentucky were left exposed to attack from the Confederates. Forrest, with five thousand men, captured Union City, Tenn., with its garrison of about five hundred troops, occupied Hickman, and advanced rapidly upon Paducah, Ky. This, protected by the gunboats, maintained so stout a defence, that Forrest retired. Moving south, he next fell upon _Fort Pillow_ (April 12). His men crept along under shelter of a ravine until very near, and then charged upon the intrenchments. Rushing into the fort, they raised the cry “No quarter!” “The Confederate officers,” says Pollard, “lost control of their men, who were maddened by the sight of negro troops opposing them,” and an indiscriminate slaughter followed.]
A joint naval and land expedition, under the command of General Banks, was sent up the Red River in the hope of destroying the Confederate authority in that region and in Texas (map opp. p. 222). Fort de Russy was taken (March 14), whence Banks moved on toward Shreveport. The line of march became extended a distance of nearly thirty miles along a single road. At _Sabine Cross Roads_ (April 8) the Confederate forces, under General Dick Taylor, attacked the advance, and a miniature Bull Run retreat ensued. The Union troops, however, rallied at _Pleasant Hill_, and the next day, reinforcements coming up from the rear, they were able to repulse the Confederates. The army thereupon returned to New Orleans, and Banks was relieved of the command.
[Footnote: Porter, who commanded the gunboats in the Red River, hearing of Banks’s retreat, attempted to return with his fleet, but the river fell so rapidly that this became impossible. It was feared that it would be necessary to blow up the vessels to prevent their falling into the enemy’s hands, when, by the happy suggestion of Colonel Bailey, formerly a Wisconsin lumberman, they were saved. He constructed a series of wing-dams below the rapids, and when the water rose, the boats were safely floated over. This skilful expedient was almost the only relieving feature of the campaign, which was believed by some to have been undertaken simply as a gigantic cotton speculation in behalf of certain parties, who seemed to be more intent on gathering that staple than on conserving the interests of the Union cause. The failure was, therefore, at the North a source of great mortification and reproach.]
_The Effect_.–This campaign was a great Confederate triumph. Banks lost five thousand men, eighteen guns, and large supplies.
[Footnote: General Steele, who commanded in Arkansas, had moved from Little Rock to cooperate in this advance, but on nearing Shreveport, learned of Banks’s retreat. He immediately turned around, and with great difficulty and severe fighting, managed to escape back to Little Rock. This disaster enabled ihe Confederates to recover half of the State.]
THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST.
THE EXPEDITION AGAINST MOBILE (August 5) was under the command of Admiral Farragut. That he might oversee the battle more distinctly, he took his position in the maintop of his flag-ship–the Hartford. The vessels, lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in an hour fought their way past the Confederate forts, and engaged the iron-clad fleet beyond (map, p. 280). After a desperate resistance, the great iron ram Tennessee was taken, and the other vessels were captured or put to flight. The forts were soon after reduced, and the harbor was closed to blockade runners.
[Footnote: The city of Mobile was not captured until the next year, when Generals Granger’s, Steele’s, and A. J. Smith’s commands, making a force of about forty-five thousand men, were collected for this purpose by Gen. Canby. The forts were gallantly defended by General Maury, but were taken within less than two weeks. The city itself was evacuated April 11. The Union troops entered the next day, ignorant that Lee had surrendered three days before, and that the Confederacy was dead.]
THE EXPEDITION AGAINST FORT FISHER, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, N. C., was commanded by Commodore Porter. It consisted of seventy vessels and a land force under General Butler. After a fierce bombardment (December 24, 25) Butler decided that the fort could not be taken by assault, and the army returned to Fortress Monroe. Commodore Porter, dissatisfied with the result, lay off the place, and asked for a second trial. The same troops, with fifteen hundred additional men, were sent back under General Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a column of sailors and one of soldiers worked their way, by a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. At the word, the former leaped forward on one side and the latter on another. The sailors were repulsed, but the soldiers burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand fight within lasted for hours. Late at night the garrison, hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (January 15, 1865). One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry of the attack or the heroism of the defence. In such a victory is glory, and in such a defeat, no disgrace.
THE BLOCKADE was now so effectual that the prices of all imported goods in the Confederate States were fabulous.
[Footnote: Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 per barrel; calico, $30 per yard; coffee, $50 per pound; French gloves, $150 per pair; and black pepper, $300 per pound. Dried sage, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly tea. Woolen clothing was scarce and the army depended largely on captures of the ample Federal stores. “Pins were so rare that they were picked up with avidity in the streets.” Paper was so expensive that matches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, butter, and white bread became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt being a necessity, was economized to the last degree, old pork and fish barrels being soaked and the water evaporated so that not a grain of salt might be wasted. Women appeared in garments that were made of cloth carded, woven, spun, and dyed by their own hands. Large thorns were fitted with wax heads and made to serve as hair-pins. Shoes were manufactured with wooden soles to which the uppers were attached by means of small tacks. As a substitute for the expensive gas, the “Confederate candle” was used. This consisted of a long wick coated with wax and resin, and wound on a little wooden frame, at the top of which was nailed a bit of tin. The end of the wick being passed through a hole in the tin, was lighted and uncoiled as needed.]
Led by the enormous profits of a successful voyage, foreign merchants were constantly seeking to run the gauntlet. Their swift steamers, making no smoke, long, narrow, low, and of a mud color, occasionally escaped the vigilance of the Federal squadron. During the war, it is said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners were taken or destroyed. With the capture of Fort Fisher, the last Confederate port of entry was sealed.
CONFEDERATE CRUISERS had now practically driven the American commerce from the ocean. They were not privateers, like those named on p. 222, for they were built in England and manned by British sailors, and were only officered and commissioned by the Confederate government. They sailed to and fro upon the track of American ships, plundering and burning, or else bonding them for heavy sums. The _Alabama_ was the most noted of these British steamers. Against the urgent remonstrances of the United States Minister at the Court of England, she was allowed to sail although her mission was well known. An English captain took her to the Azores, where other English vessels brought her arms, ammunition, and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional men. Putting out to sea, he read his commission and announced his purpose. After capturing over sixty vessels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France. While there, he sent out a challenge to the national ship-of-war _Kearsarge_ (keer’-sarj). This was accepted, and a battle took place off that harbor. Captain Winslow, of the Kearsarge, so manoeuvred that the Alabama was compelled to move round in a circular track, while he trained his guns upon her with fearful effect. On the seventh rotation, the Confederate vessel ran up the white flag and soon after sank. Captain Winslow rescued a part of the sinking crew, and others were picked up, at his request, by the Deerhound, an English yacht; but this vessel steamed off to the British coast with those she had saved, among whom was Captain Semmes.
THE SANITARY AND CHRISTIAN COMMISSIONS were “splendid examples of organized mercy,” furnished by the people of the North. They devised and provided every possible comfort for the sick and wounded, besides distributing religious reading to every soldier in the field. Ambulances, stretchers, hot coffee, postage-stamps, paper and envelopes, prayer-meetings, medicines, Christian burial–no want of body or soul was overlooked. “Homes” and “Lodges ” for men on sick leave; for those not yet under or just out of the care of the government, or who had been left by their regiments, were instituted. “Feeding Stations” for the tired and hungry were established, and even “Homes for the Wives, Mothers, and Children of Soldiers” who had come to visit their sick or wounded. On every flag-of-truce boat were placed clothing, medicines, and cordials for the prisoners who had been exchanged. With boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave Christian burial and marked graves to the dead. Over seventeen millions of dollars in money and supplies were expended by these two Commissions.
POLITICAL AFFAIRS.–At the North, there was much dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war. The debt had become about $2,000,000, 000. In July of this year, paper money reached its greatest depreciation, and it required two dollars and ninety cents in greenbacks to buy one dollar in gold. It was at the time of Grant’s repulse from Cold Harbor and of Early’s raid. Yet, in the midst of these discouragements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated by the republican party. George B. McClellan was the democratic candidate; he stood firmly for the prosecution of the war, and the maintenance of the Union, but was not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popular majority of over four hundred thousand.
GENERAL REVIEW OF THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE WAR.–
The Confederates had gained the battles of Olustee,
[Footnote: This battle ended an expedition fitted out by General Gilmore, at Hilton Head, S. C, to recover Florida. After some success his troops, under General Seymour, advanced to _Olustee_, where (February 20) they met a disastrous defeat and were forced to relinquish much they had gained. The men were afterwards taken to Virginia to engage in more important work.]
Sabine Cross Roads, the Wilderness, Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Harbor, and Monocacy; had defeated the expeditions into Florida and the Red River country, the two attacks upon Petersburg, and one against Fort Fisher, and yet held Grant at bay before Richmond. They had, however, lost ground on every side. Of the States east of the Mississippi, only North and South Carolina were fully retained. Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Virginia, Georgia and Florida were overrun by the Union armies. The Federals had gained the battles of Pleasant Hill, Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fisher’s Hill, Cedar Creek and Nashville. They had captured Fort de Russy, the forts in Mobile harbor, and Fort McAlister, and had taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had swept across Georgia; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah, driving its defenders before him; Thomas had annihilated Hood’s army; Grant held Lee firmly grasped at Richmond, and the navy swept the entire coast.
THE SITUATION.–The plan of the campaign was very simple. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman was to move north from Savannah against Johnston, and then join Grant in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan, with ten thousand troopers, had swept down from the Shenandoah, cut the railroads north of Richmond, and taken his place in the Union lines before Petersburg. Wilson, with thirteen thousand horsemen, rode at large through Alabama and Georgia, and at Macon held a line of retreat from Virginia westward. Stoneman, with five thousand cavalry from Tennessee, poured through the passes of the Alleghanies and waited in North Carolina for the issue in Virginia.
[Illustration: SHERMAN’S MARCH.]
SHERMAN’S MARCH THROUGH THE CAROLINAS.–In the meantime Sherman had given his troops only a month’s rest in Savannah. Early in February, they were put in motion northward. There was no waiting for roads to dry nor for bridges to be built, but the troops swept on like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and one battle was fought while the water was up to the shoulders of the men. The army, sixty thousand strong, moved in four columns, with a front of more than fifty miles. Cavalry and foragers swarmed on the flanks. Before them was terror; behind them were ashes.
COLUMBIA was captured (February 17), and Charleston, thus threatened in the rear, was evacuated the next day.
[Footnote: The cotton stored in the city was scattered through the streets and destroyed by fire. The flames quickly spread to the houses adjoining. All efforts to subdue the conflagration were unsuccessful, and a large portion of the city was destroyed.]
[Footnote: General Hardee, on leaving, inflicted a terrible injury. He set fire to every shed and warehouse in which cotton was stored. The flames spread to a quantity of powder in the depot, which exploded with fearful destruction. Two hundred lives were lost. In spite of the efforts of the Union troops, a vast amount of private property was involved in the general devastation. The ravages which the war had made were well illustrated by the appearance of this city after its evacuation. An eye-witness says: “No pen, no pencil, no tongue can do justice to the scene; no imagination can conceive the utter wreck, the universal ruin, the stupendous desolation. Ruin, ruin, ruin, above and below, on the right hand and on the left-ruin, ruin, ruin, everywhere and always, staring at us from every paneless window, looking out at us from every shell-torn wall, glaring at us from every battered door, pillar, and veranda, crouching beneath our feet on every sidewalk. Not Pompeii, nor Herculaneum, nor Tadmor, nor the Nile, has ruins so saddening, so plaintively eloquent.”]
In this emergency, Johnston was again called to the command of the Confederate forces. He gathered their scattered armies and vigorously opposed Sherman’s advance. After fierce engagements at _Averysboro_ and _Bentonville_ (March 15, 18), he was driven back, and Raleigh was captured (April 13).
SIEGE OF RICHMOND.–Lee’s position was fast becoming desperate. His only hope lay in getting out of Richmond and joining with Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the struggle. Grant was determined to prevent this, and compel Lee to surrender, as he had forced Pemberton to do.
ATTACK ON FORT STEADMAN (March 25).–Lee determined to attack Grant’s right, in order to hide his plan of retreat, and especially in the hope that Grant would send troops from the left to succor the threatened point. In that case, he would slip out, with the main body of his army, by the nearest road southward, which ran close by the Union left. The assault was made on Fort Steadman, but it was a signal failure. Three thousand out of five thousand engaged in the attempt were lost. To make matters worse, a Union assault followed directly afterward, and a portion of the Confederate outer defences was captured. Thus Grant’s grip was only tightened. He had made no change in the position of his troops, and this sortie neither hastened nor delayed the grand, final attack.
BATTLE OF FIVE FORKS (April l).–This movement began Wednesday morning, March 29. Sheridan with his cavalry–nine thousand sabres–and heavy columns of infantry, pushed out from Grant’s left wing to get around in Lee’s rear. Cloaking his plan by a thick screen of cavalry, to conceal the movements of his infantry, he threw a heavy force behind the Confederate position at _Five Forks_. Assailed in front and rear, the garrison was overwhelmed, and five thousand men were taken prisoners.
[Footnote: Five Forks is situated twelve miles southwest from Petersburg. (See map opposite p. 223, and of VIth Epoch.)]
_The Effect_ of this brilliant affair was at once to render Lee’s position untenable. His right was turned, and his rear threatened.
CAPTURE OF PETERSBURG AND RICHMOND (April 2, 3).–The next morning, at four o’clock, the Union army advanced in an overwhelming assault along the whole front. By noon, the Confederate line of intrenchments before which the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, and thousands of prisoners were captured.
[Footnote: Generals Lee and A. P. Hill were at the former’s headquarters, within the city, discussing the prospects of the day. Suddenly General Lee, listening, said to Hill: “General, your men are giving way.” Instantly Hill was mounted and dashing down the road. As he was spurring his steed, he caught a glimpse of two or three blue coats with rifles leveled at him. “Throw down your arms!” he authoritatively cried. For an instant the men hesitated, but the next moment they fired, and General Hill fell dead.]
That night Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next morning the Union troops took possession of the Confederate capital, the coveted goal of the Army of the Potomac for four long bloody years.
[Footnote: Sunday, the day before, the Confederate President, Davis, was at church, when a note was handed him by a messenger. It was from Leo, informing him that the Confederate army was about to leave Richmond. His pallid face and unsteady footsteps, as he passed out, betrayed the news. Pollard says: “Men, women, and children rushed from the churches, passing from lip to lip news of the impending fall of Richmond. . . . It was late in the afternoon when the signs of evacuation became apparent to the incredulous. Suddenly, as if by magic, the streets became filled with men, walking as though for a wager, and behind them excited negroes with trunks, bundles, and luggage of every description. All over the city, it was the same–wagons, trunks, bandboxes, and their owners, a mass of hurrying fugitives filling the streets. Night came, and with it confusion worse confounded. There was no sleep for human eyes in Richmond that night. About the hour of midnight, hundreds of barrels of liquor were rolled into the street, and the heads knocked in, by order of the City Council, to prevent a worse disorder. As the work progressed, some straggling soldiers managed to get hold of a quantity of the liquor. From that moment law and order ceased to exist.” By order of General Ewell, the four principal tobacco warehouses, in different parts of the city, were fired, and soon the flames became unmanageable. “Morning broke upon a scene such as those who witnessed it can never forget. The roar of an immense conflagration sounded in their ears; tongues of flame leaped from street to street; and in this baleful glare were to be seen, as of demons, the figures of busy plunderers, moving, pushing, rioting through the black smoke, bearing away every conceivable sort of plunder.”]
LEE’S SURRENDER.–Meanwhile, Lee, having only the wreck of that proud array with which he had dealt the Union army so many crushing blows, hurried west, seeking some avenue of escape. Grant urged the pursuit with untiring energy. Sheridan, “with a terrible daring which knew no pause, no rest,” hung on his flanks. Food now failed the Confederates and they could get only the young shoots of trees to eat. If they sought a moment’s repose, they were awakened by the clatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, turned hither and thither; but at last Sheridan planted himself squarely across the front. Lee ordered a charge. His half-starved troops, with a rallying of their old courage, obeyed. But the cavalry moving aside, as a curtain is drawn, revealed dense bodies of infantry in battle line. The Civil War was about to end in one of its bloodiest tragedies, when the Confederate advance was stopped. General Grant had already sent in a note demanding the surrender of the army. Lee accepted the terms; and, April 9th, eight thousand men–the remains of the Army of Virginia–laid down their arms near Appomattox Court House, and then turned homeward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American citizens.
[Footnote: The officers and men were allowed to go home on their paroles not to take up arms against the United States until exchanged, and the former to retain their private baggage and horses. After the surrender had been concluded, General Lee said that he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rode their own horses. Grant at once replied that such should keep their horses to aid them in their future work at home–That the two armies so fiercely opposed for four years could have parted with no words but those of sympathy and respect was an assured presage of a day when all the wounds of the restored Union should be fully healed.]
_The Effect_.–This closed the war. The other Confederate armies–Johnston’s, Dick Taylor’s, and Kirby Smith’s–promptly surrendered. Jefferson Davis fled southward, hoping to escape, but was overtaken near Irwinsville, Georgia (May 11), and sent a prisoner to Fortress Monroe.
[Footnote: The last fight of the war happened near Brazos Santiago, Texas, May 13. A small expedition sent out to surprise a Confederate camp was overtaken, on its return, by a larger force and defeated with a loss of eighty men.]
COST OF THE WAR.–In the Union armies probably three hundred thousand men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, while doubtless two hundred thousand more were crippled for life. If the Confederate armies suffered as heavily, the country thus lost one million able-bodied men. The Union debt, Jan. 1, 1866, was nearly $2,750,000,000. At one time, the daily expenses reached the sum of $3,500,000. During the last year of the war, the expenses were greater than the entire expenditures of the government from Washington to Buchanan. The Confederate war debts were never paid, as that government was overthrown.
ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN.–In the midst of the universal rejoicings over the advent of peace, on the evening of April 14 the intelligence was flashed over the country that Lincoln had been assassinated. While seated with his wife and friends in his box at Ford’s Theatre, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth who insanely imagined he was ridding his country of a tyrant.
[Footnote: Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not be followed, shot the President, then–waving his pistol shouted “Sic Semper Tyrannis” (so be it always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front As he jumped, the American flag draped before the box–mute avenger of the nation’s chief–caught his spur and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg The assassin, however escaped from the house in the confusion, mounted a horse which was waiting for him, and fled into Maryland He was at length overtaken in a barn, here he stood at bay The building was fired to drive him out, but, being determined to defend himself against arrest, he was shot by one of the soldiers The accomplices of Booth were arrested, tried and convicted. Herold, Payne, Atzerott and Mrs Surratt were hanged, Arnold, Mudd and McLaughlin imprisoned for life and Spangler was sentenced for six years]
[Footnote: A nearly fatal attempt was also made at the same time upon William H Seward, Secretary of State, who was lying sick in his bed at home]
[Illustration: THE WHITE HOUSE OR EXECUTIVE MANSION (The Official Residence of the President)]
About the unconscious body of the President gathered the most prominent men of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting in vain for some sign of recognition until the next morning, when he died. The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourning throughout the land. In most of the cities and towns funeral orations were pronounced. The body was borne to Springfield over the same route along which Lincoln had come as President elect to Washington. The procession may be said to have extended the entire distance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the engines and cars were draped in black. Almost every citizen wore the badge of mourning.
STATES ADDED DURING THIS EPOCH.–_West Virginia_, the thirty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union June 20, 1863. During the Civil War, this portion of Virginia remaining loyal, it was incorporated as a separate State.
_Nevada_, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union October 31, 1864. Its name was derived from the range of mountains on the west, the Sierra Nevada, a Spanish title, signifying “Snow-covered mountains.” It was the third State carved out of the territory acquired by the Mexican war, Texas being the first, and California the second. Its first settlement was at Carson City. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union.
Summary of the History of the Fifth Epoch, arranged in Chronological Order.
1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated President of United States, March 4,
Fort Sumter fired upon, April 12, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers, April 15, Confederates seized Harper’s Ferry, April 18, Massachusetts troops fired upon in Baltimore, April 19, Confederates seized Norfolk Navy Yard, April 20, Battle of Philippi, Va., June 3,
” Big Bethel, Va., June 10,
” Booneville, Mo., June 17,
” Carthage, Mo., July 5,
1861. Battle of Rich Mountain, Va., July 11, ” Carrick’s Ford, Va., July 14,
Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va., July 20, Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21,
” Wilson’s Creek, Mo., August 10, Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C., captured, August 29, Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., September 10, ” Lexington, Mo., September 20,
” Ball’s Bluff, Va., October 21, Port Royal, S. C., taken, November 7, Battle of Belmont, Mo, November 7,
Seizure of Mason and Slidell, November 8, Skirmish of Dranesville, Va., December 20, 1862. Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19, Fort Henry, Tenn., taken, February 6, Roanoke Island, N. C., taken, February 8, Fort Donelson, Tenn., taken, February 16, Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7,8, ” of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9, Newberne, N. C., taken, March 14,
Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6,7, Island No. 10 captured, April 7,
Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured, April 11, New Orleans captured, April 25,
Beaufort, S. C, captured, April 25, Yorktown, Va., taken, May 4,
Battle of Williamsburg, Va., May 5, Norfolk, Va., surrendered, May 10,
Corinth, Miss., taken, May 30,
Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, Va., May 31, June 1, Lee assumed command of the Confederate armies, June 3, Memphis, Tenn., surrendered, June 6, Seven-Days battles, June 25-July 1,
Battle of Cedar Mountain, Va., August 9, Second Battle of Bull Run, Va., August 29, Battle of Richmond, Ky., August 30,
” Chantilly, Va., September 1, ” South Mountain, Md., September 14, Harper’s Ferry surrendered, September 15, Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17, ” Iuka, Miss., September 19,
” Corinth, Miss., October 4, ” Perryville, Ky., October 8,
1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, Va., December 13, First attack on Vicksburg, Miss., December 29, Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., December 31 and January 2, 1863,
1863. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, Arkansas Post taken, January 11,
Fort Sumter, S. C., bombarded by fleet, April 7, Grant’s campaign before Vicksburg, May 1-17, Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2, 3, West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 20, Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1-3, Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered, July 4, Port Hudson surrendered, July 8,
Draft Riot in New York City, July 13-16, Fort Wagner, S. C., taken, September 7, Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20, ” Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24, 25, Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised, December 4, 1864. Battle of Olustee, Fla, February 20, Grant made Lieutenant-General, March 3, Fort de Russy captured, March 14,
Fort Pillow, Tenn., captured, April 12, Butler landed at Bermuda Hundred, May 5, Battle of Wilderness, Va., May 5, 6,
” Spottsylvania, Va., May 8-12, ” Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15,
” New Market, Va., May 15,
” Dallas, May 25-28,
” Cold Harbor, Va., June 3,
” Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15-17, Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 19, Battle of Kenesaw Mt., Ga., June 27,
” Monocacy, Md., July 9,
Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28, Chambersburg, Pa., burned, July 30,
Mine explosion, Petersburg, Va., July 30, Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5, Weldon Railroad seized, August 18,
Atlanta, Ga., taken, September 2, Battle of Winchester, Va., September 19, ” Fisher’s Hill, Va., September 22, ” Cedar Creek, Va., October 19,
Nevada admitted to the Union, October 31, Fort McAlister, Ga, taken, December 13, 1864. Battle of Nashville, Tenn., December 15, 16, 1865. Fort Fisher, N. C., taken, January 15, Columbia, S. C., taken, February 17,
Charleston, S. C., taken, February 18, Battles of Averysboro and Bentonsville, N. C., Mar 15, 18, Attack on Fort Steadman, Va., March 25, Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1,
Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3, Lee’s army surrendered, April 9,
President Lincoln assassinated, April 14, Johnston’s army surrendered, April 26, Jefferson Davis captured May 11,
_Draper, Greeley, Stephens, Abbott, Pollard, Lossing and Headley on the Civil War–Nichol’s Story of the Great March and The Sanctuary (a novel)–Swinton’s Army of the Potomac and Twelve Decisive Battles–Dabney’s Life of Stonewall Jackson–Badeau’s Military History of General Grant–Headley’s Farragut and Our Naval Commanders–Coffin’s Days and Nights on the Battle Field–Boynton’s American Navy–Still’s History of the Sanitary Commission–Johnston’s Narrative of Military Operations–Moore’s Rebellion Record and Ballads and Grant White’s Poetry of the Civil War–Harper’s Pictorial History of the War–Duyckinck’s History and Lives of Eminent Americans–Mrs Childs’s Romance of the Republic–Esten Cook’s Surrey of Eagle’s Nest and Mohun (novels)–Harrington’s Inside–Gilmore’s Among the Guerrillas and Down in Tennessee–W. G. Simms’s War Poetry of the South–Laura Redden’s Idyls of Battle and Richardson’s Field, Dungeon, and Escape–Hotchkiss & Allan’s Battle Fields of Virginia–Early’s Army of Northern Virginia–Whittier’s In War Time (Poem)–Cooke’s Life of General Robert E. Lee–Memoirs of Gen W. T. Sherman–Barnes’s Popular Hist of United States _
[Illustration: LINCOLN’S EARLY HOME IN ILLINOIS]
RECONSTRUCTION AND PASSING EVENTS.
From 1865–Close of the Civil War,
To–The Present Date.
[Footnote: Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, N. C., December 29, 1808. When only ten years of age, he was bound apprentice to a tailor of that city. Never having been at school a day in his life, he yet determined to secure an education. From a fellow-workman he learned the alphabet, and from a friend something of spelling. Thenceforth, after working ten to twelve hours per day at his trade, he spent two or three every night in study. In 1826, he went West to seek his fortune, with true filial affection carrying with him his mother, who was dependent on his labor for support. After his marriage at Greenville, Tenn., he continued his studies under the instruction of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by day. His political life commenced with his election as alderman. He was successively chosen mayor, member of legislature, Presidential elector, State senator, twice governor, and thrice U.S. senator.]
[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Sixth Epoch. _-Locate Raleigh. Heart’s Content, and St. John’s, Newfoundland (see map, Epoch II). Alaska St. Albans, Vt. Buffalo, Mt. Pleasant, O, (map. Epoch V). West Point. Chicago. Boston. Duluth. Puget’s Sound. San Francisco. Klamath Lava Beds, Oregon.]
(SEVENTEENTH PRESIDENT: 1865-1869.)
THE death of Lincoln produced no disorder, and within three hours thereafter the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, quietly assumed the duties of the Presidency.
DISBANDING OF THE ARMY.–At the close of the war the two armies numbered a million and a half of soldiers. Within six months they had nearly all returned home. Thus the mightiest hosts ever called to the field by a republic went back without disturbance to the tranquil pursuits of civil life. In a few months there was nothing to distinguish the soldier from the citizen, except the recollection of his bravery. Other nations prophesied that such a vast army could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by this final triumph of law and order, proved itself the most stable government in the world.
[Footnote: A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, two hundred thousand strong, took place in the presence of the President and his Cabinet. For twelve hours this triumphal procession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twenty men deep, rolled through the broad avenues of the Capital.]
DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.–_Reconstruction Policy of the President. _–Johnson recognized the State governments that had been formed in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana during the war, under the protection of the Union army. In the other States, he appointed provisional governors, and authorized the calling of conventions to form loyal governments. These conventions accordingly met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the Confederate war debt, and ratified the amendment which Congress had offered abolishing slavery. On these conditions, Johnson claimed that the States, having never been legally out of the Union, should be restored to all their rights in the Union. All restrictions on commerce with the South had been previously removed (April 29, 1865). A month later, Johnson issued a proclamation of amnesty and pardon to all engaged in secession, except certain classes, on condition of taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. In 1868 (July 4) full pardon was granted to all not under indictment for treason, and afterward this was extended to all without exception.
[Footnote: Many of the persons thus excluded obtained pardons from the President by personal application. One complaint against him was the readiness with which he granted such pardons.]
_The Thirteenth Amendment_, abolishing slavery, having been ratified by the States, was declared (December 18, 1865) duly adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States.
_Public Debt._–The annual interest on the war debt was now over one hundred and thirty millions of dollars. The revenue from duties on imported goods, taxes on manufactures, incomes, etc., and from the sale of revenue stamps, was over three hundred millions of dollars. This provided not only for the current expenses of the government and the payment of interest, but also for the gradual extinguishment of the debt. It is a striking evidence of the abundant resources of the country that, in 1866, “before all the extra troops called out by the war had been discharged, the debt had been diminished more than thirty-one millions of dollars.”
_Reconstruction Policy of Congress._–On the assembling of Congress, decided grounds were taken against the policy of the President. It was claimed that Congress alone had power to prescribe the conditions for the re-admission of the seceded States. His proclamation and orders were treated as of no value. The Freedmen’s Bureau, the Civil Rights, and the Tenure-of-Office bills were passed over the President’s veto.
[Footnote: The first provided for the establishment of a department of the national government for the care and protection of the freedmen, _i. e._, the emancipated slaves, and also of the destitute whites at the South. The second bill guaranteed to the negroes the rights of citizenship. The third made the consent of the Senate necessary to the removal by the President of any person from a civil office.]
_The Seceded States Admitted._–Tennessee promptly ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and was restored to her former position in the Union. The other provisional governments having refused to do so, a bill was passed (March 2, 1867) placing those States under military rule. The generals in command caused a registry of voters to be made, and elections to be held for conventions to remodel the State constitutions. After a bitter and protracted struggle, governments were established in Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North and South Carolina, and their representatives admitted (June 24, 1868) over the President’s veto, to Congress, after an unrepresented period of seven years.
[Footnote: As a requisite demanded by Congress for holding office, every candidate was obliged to swear that he had not participated in the secession movement Since few Southerners could take this “iron-clad oath,” as it was termed, most of the representatives were Northern men who had gone South after the war, and were, therefore, called “carpet-baggers.”]
_Impeachment of the President._–The constantly-increasing hostility between the President and Congress came to an issue when the former attempted to remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. This being considered a violation of the Tenure-of-Office bill, the impeachment of the President was at last ordered (February 24, 1868). After a long and tedious trial he was acquitted, the two-thirds majority necessary for conviction lacking one vote.
_The Fourteenth Amendment_ proposed by Congress, guaranteeing equal civil rights to all, regardless of race or color, and basing representation in each State on the number of voters, was adopted July 28, 1868.
_The Indian War_ along the Southwest having, in 1865-6, increased so as to demand active measures for its suppression, General Sheridan was ordered thither. Black Kettle and a large body of his warriors being surprised and slain by a charge of Custer’s cavalry (1868) in the battle of the Wacheta (wah-che’-tah), hostilities ceased.
_The French in Mexico._–While the United States were absorbed in the civil war, Napoleon III., emperor of France, took advantage of the opportunity to secure a foothold in America. By the assistance of the French army, the imperialists of Mexico defeated the liberals, and Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was chosen emperor. The United States government protested against the measure, but was unable to enforce the “Monroe doctrine.” When the American people were relieved from the pressure of civil strife, they turned their attention to the Mexicans hopelessly struggling for liberty, and the United States government demanded of Napoleon the recall of the French troops. Maximilian, deprived of foreign aid, was defeated, and, falling into the hands of the Mexican liberals, was shot June 19, 1867. This ended the dream of French dominion on this continent.
_Laying of the Atlantic Cable_.–While these great political events were happening, science had achieved a peaceful triumph whose importance far transcended the victories of diplomatic or military skill. A telegraphic cable eighteen hundred and sixty-four miles in length had been laid from Valentia Bay, Ireland, to Heart’s Content, Newfoundland.
[Footnote: The success of this enterprise was due to the energy of Cyrus W. Field. In 1856, the line was finished from New York to St. John’s, Newfoundland, a distance of over one thousand miles. A company was then formed with a capital of about $1,750,000. A cable was made, but in an attempt to lay it (August, 1857), the cable parted. A second attempt, in June, 1858, failed after repeated trials. A third effort, in July was successful. A message was sent from the Queen of England to the President, and a reply transmitted. A celebration was held in New York in honor of the event, but on that very day (September 1) the cable ceased to work. The time and money spent seemed a total loss. Mr. Field alone was undismayed. The company was revived, $3,000,000 were subscribed, and a new cable was manufactured. In July, 1865, the Great Eastern commenced laying this cable, but in mid-ocean it parted and sank to the bottom. Again Mr. Field went to work, raised a new company with a capital of $3,000,000, and made a third cable. The Great Eastern sailed with this in June, 1866, and successfully accomplished the feat. To make the triumph more complete, the vessel sailed back to the very spot where the cable of 1865 had parted, and, dropping grappling-irons, caught the lost cable, brought it to the surface, and, splicing it, laid the remaining portion. The two cables were found to work admirably. A despatch has been sent across the ocean by a battery made in a gun-cap.]
[Illustration: THE GREAT EASTERN LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE]
The two continents were thus brought into almost instant communication.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS.–_Purchase of Alaska_ (October, 1867).–Through the diplomacy of William H. Seward, Secretary of State, Alaska was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. It contains about 500,000 square miles, but is principally valuable for its harbors, furs, and fisheries.
_Fenian Excitement_.–The Fenians, a secret society organized for the purpose of delivering Ireland from British rule, crossed the Canadian frontier at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vt., in large numbers. President Johnson issued a proclamation declaring the movement a violation of our neutrality, and sent thither General Meade to execute the laws. After some skirmishing with British troops, the expedition returned.
_Treaty with China_ (1868).–An embassy from the Chinese Empire, under charge of Anson Burlingame, visited the United States.
[Footnote: Burlingame had been the United States minister to the Chinese government for six years. During this time he had rendered himself so popular, that, at the end of his term of service, Prince Kung, the Chinese Regent, requested him to go on this special mission to foreign courts. After visiting the United States, he went to England, France, and Russia. He died at St. Petersburg within a month after his arrival there.]
It was an event of much importance, and the first of its kind in the history of that exclusive nation. A treaty was perfected guaranteeing liberty of conscience to Americans in China, and certain commercial privileges of great value.
POLITICAL PARTIES.–The republican party nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, for President, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The democratic party nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and General Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to vote. As the other Southern States had been “reconstructed,” had granted negro suffrage, and enforced a strict registry law, they were permitted to participate in the election. Grant and Colfax were elected.
[Footnote: Hiram Ulysses Grant was born at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, April 27,1822. He was unwilling to follow his father’s trade, which was that of a tanner, and, at seventeen, an appointment to West Point was secured for him. His name having been wrongly registered, Grant vainly attempted to set the matter right, but finally accepted his “manifest destiny,” assumed the change thus forced upon him, and thenceforth signed himself “Ulysses Simpson,” the latter being his mother’s family name. Two years after completing his four-years course as cadet, the Mexican War broke out, in which Grant conducted himself with great gallantry, receiving especial mention and promotion. After this, he retired to civil life, where he remained until the opening of the war in 1861. He was then appointed to command a company of volunteers. Having taken it to Springfield, he became aid to Gov. Yates, and was finally commissioned as colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment. His military and political career was henceforth a part of the country’s history. After the close of his presidential terms, he made the tour of the world. During this extended journey, he was everywhere received with marked enthusiasm and honor, and his dignified and consistent conduct shed lustre upon the country he represented.]
(EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENT–TWO TERMS: 1869-1877.)
DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.–_Pacific Railroad_.–The year 1869 was made memorable by the opening of this road, which completed the union between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The traveler can now pass from New York to San Francisco, a distance of about 3,400 miles, in less than a week. This great highway has linked the West to the East by iron bands, has carried thousands of pioneers into the hitherto wild country along its route, developed fresh sources of industry and mines of wealth, and opened the United States to the silks, teas, and spices of Asia. American ingenuity has solved the problem which foiled Columbus and the olden navigators. It has made for itself a route to India.
[Footnote: Already other roads across the continent are constructing. The Northern Pacific has its eastern terminus on Lake Superior, and its western will be on Puget Sound. Though far to the north, yet in Oregon there is no winter weather, but only a rainy season, as in California. In portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Montana, cattle range the natural-grass pastures during the whole winter; while, in Washington Territory, roses blossom the year around. For the construction of this road public lands have been given by Congress, to the amount of over 80,000,000 acres, which is considerably in excess of the total area of the six New England States. The length of this road will be 1,800 miles, with a branch of 200 miles to Portland, Oregon. The Southern Pacific is to extend from Shreveport, La., to San Diego, Cal., a distance of 1,514 miles. This will run through a country so mild as to avoid the necessity of the “snow-sheds” which form so singular a feature of the Central Pacific.]
[Illustration: ULYSSES S GRANT]
_The Fifteenth Amendment_, which guarantees to all the right of suffrage, irrespective of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude,” having been ratified by the requisite number of States, was formally announced as a part of the Constitution, by Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, March 30, 1870.
_Prosperity of the Country._–The nation rapidly recovered from the effects of war. The price of gold fell to 110, and the national debt was reduced $204,000,000 during the first two years of this administration. A general amnesty to all connected with the Civil War was proclaimed, and the bitter feelings engendered by fraternal strife fast melted away. The South, devastated and scourged by the march of contending armies, accustomed herself to the novel conditions of free labor, rebuilt her railroads, cultivated her fields, and repaired the ravages of war. The census of 1870 showed that the population of the United States was over thirty-eight millions, an increase of about seven millions, while the manufacturing establishments of the country had nearly, if not quite, doubled in number and value during the preceding decade.
_Fires_.–l. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday night, October 8, 1871. For two days it raged with tremendous violence, devastating 3,000 acres. 25,000 buildings were burned, $200,000,000 worth of property was destroyed, and 100,000 persons were rendered homeless. Contributions for the sufferers were taken in nearly all parts of the world, and over $7,500,000 were raised. 2. During the same fall, wide-spread conflagrations raged in the forests of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages were consumed. 1,500 people perished in Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fire occurred in Boston November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres in the center of the wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed $70, 000,000 worth of property.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS.–_Treaty of Washington_.–The refusal of the English government to pay the damages to American commerce caused by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers (p. 268) produced bitter feeling, and even threatened war. A high commission, composed of distinguished statesmen and jurists from both countries, accordingly met in Washington, and arranged the basis of a treaty between the United States and Great Britain, settling this and other causes of dispute. According to its provisions, the claim for losses was submitted to a board of arbitrators, who, having convened at Geneva, Switzerland, awarded the United States $15,500, 000 in gold.
[Illustration: HON. HAMILTON FISH, JUSTICE NELSON, EARL GREY, PROF. BERNARD, GEN. SCHENCK, ATTY.-GEN. WILLIAMS, LORD TENTERDEN, SIR JOHN MACDONALD. THE HIGH JOINT COMMISSION IN SESSION.]
The difficulty with regard to the Northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was submitted to the Emperor of Germany, and was decided in favor of the United States. Thus happily all danger of war was averted, and the great principle of the settlement of disputes by peaceful arbitration rather than by the sword was finally established.
_Proposed Annexation of Santo Domingo._
[Footnote: The island of Santo Domingo is the “New World’s classic land.” Here Columbus founded the first white colony on this side of the Atlantic, and transporting hither animals, trees, shrubs, vines, and grains, so to speak, grafted the old world upon the new. Hither, also, flocked the bold, adventurous, ambitious Spanish multitude (see p. 26). Great cities sprung up, rivaling the majestic proportions of Moorish capitals. Magnificent enterprises were set on foot and prospered. Here Ponce de Leon renewed his ambition, and set forth afresh on an expedition to Porto Rico, and thence to Florida, in search of the Fountain of Youth (see p. 26). “A century before Henry Hudson sailed up the noble river that perpetuates his name–more than a century before the Puritans landed at Plymouth Rock–the city of Santo Domingo was a rich and populous center of industry and trade. Some of its palaces and churches still remain, massive and splendid; among them, the great cathedral begun in 1514 and finished in 1540.” But the Spanish policy of greed and oppression gradually undermined itself. In 1795, when Santo Domingo was ceded to France, it was “abandoned to such a degree that it was a mere wilderness, devoted to the grazing of cattle.” Yet, in spite of past tyranny, of neglect, and the knowledge that they had been “sold like a herd of cattle” to a foreign master, the Dominicans were loyal to Spain, and when Napoleon I. took possession of Madrid in 1808, they indignantly rose in arms, overpowered the French garrisons, and made themselves masters of their own country. They then rehoisted the Spanish flag, and in 1814, by the treaty of Paris, Santo Domingo was formally restored to that country. Meanwhile, the few years of interval had taught them some of the pleasures of liberty, and the seed then implanted grew rapidly. In 1821, they severed their connection with the mother country, but only to be absorbed by the more thriving and populous Hayti. In 1844, the Dominican Republic declared itself free and independent. Great Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, Holland, and Sardinia formally recognized it, and sent representatives to its capital. After seventeen years of struggle against European intrigue and Haytien aggression, it again lapsed into a Spanish dependency. Its story for the next four years is successively one of oppression, of revolt, of bloody wars, and of ultimate success. The Spanish fleet took final leave in 1865, and left the brave Dominicans to their well-earned freedom.]
This republic, comprising a large part of the island of Hayti, applied for admission to the United States. A commission of eminent men, appointed by the President to visit the island and examine its condition, reported favorably. The measure, however, was rejected by Congress.
_”The Virginius.” _–In 1868, Cuba attempted to throw off the Spanish yoke. Great sympathy was felt in the United States for the patriots, and repeated efforts were made to send them aid. In spite of the vigilance of the authorities, the Virginius, loaded with men and supplies, escaped from port in the fall of this year. While still on the high seas, and flying the American flag, she was captured by the Spanish war steamer Tornado and carried into Santiago. Many of her crew and passengers were summarily shot. The United States consul at that port protested in vain. President Grant interfered with a strong hand. The Virginius was thereupon released, and suitable apologies were made for the insult offered to the United States flag.
POLITICAL PARTIES.–The liberal republican party, consisting of republicans opposed to the administration, nominated Horace Greeley of New York for the presidential term commencing 1873 The democratic party endorsed this nomination. The republicans renomimated President Grant, who was elected
[Footnote: Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., February 3, 1811. At two years of age, he began to study the newspapers given him for amusement; and at four, could read anything placed before him, At six, he was able to spell any word in the English language was somewhat versed in geography and arithmetic and had read the entire Bible. His passion for books increased with his years, and at an early age he determined to be a printer. At fifteen he entered the office of the Northern Spectator at East Poultney, Vt. His wages were forty dollars a year, the greater part of which was saved and sent to his father, then struggling in poverty upon a farm in Pennsylvania. The Spectator having failed in 1831 Greeley went to New York. He landed with ten dollars and a scanty outfit tied in a handkerchief. Franklin like, he traversed the streets in search of work–a long stooping, stockingless figure in linen roundabout short trousers and drooping hat, with his out grown cotton wristbands made to meet with twine. Diligence, integrity and ability won him a ready rise when employment was at last secured. Ten years later he founded the New York Tribune. He served in Congress in 1848-49 where he was known for his opposition to the abuses of the mileage system. When civil war seemed imminent, he advocated a peaceable division of the country but after it opened he urged a vigorous prosecution of hostilities. At the close of the war, he pleaded for immediate conciliation and was a signer of the bail bond which restored Jefferson Davis to liberty after two years imprisonment in Fortress Monroe.
Horace Greeley was pure, simple and conscientious in character He had a peculiar disregard for dress and neglected many of the courtesies of society, but he was a true gentleman at heart and possessed rare gifts in conversation. He was fond of agriculture and spent his leisure days on his farm at Chappaqua. Just before the close of the presidential canvass his wife died and this together with the desertion of friends and the excitement of the contest unsettled his mimd. He was carried to a private asylum where he died November 39,1872.]
[Illustration: HORACE GREELEY FOUNDER OF THE TRIBUNE]
GRANT’S SECOND TERM–DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.–The _Modoc Indians_ having refused to stay upon their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent against them The savages thereupon retreated to their fastnesses in the Lava Beds. The peace commissioners, hoping to arrange the difficulty, held a conference with the chiefs. In the midst of the council, the Indians treacherously slew General Canby and Rev. Dr. Thomas and wounded Mr. Meachem. The Modocs were then bombarded in their stronghold, and finally forced to surrender. Captain Jack and several of the leaders of the band were executed at Fort Klamath, October 3, 1873.
_The Credit Mobilier_ was a company organized for the purpose of building the Pacific Railroad. The undertaking proved a profitable one, and enormous dividends were paid. An investigation developed the startling fact that various high officers of the government had accepted presents of stock, the value of which necessarily depended largely upon their official action.
_Railroad Panic._–In the autumn of 1873, Jay Cooke & Co., bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too extensively in railroad schemes, failed. A financial crisis ensued, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the Union were involved in ruin. A settled stringency of the money market and a stagnation of business followed.
_Centennial Anniversaries._–The year 1875, being the hundredth anniversary of the first year of the Revolutionary War, was marked by various centennial observances. April 19, the battles of Lexington and Concord were celebrated with patriotic pride. May 20, the citizens of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, honored the memory of those who, at Charlotte, signed a Declaration of Independence only ten days after the capture of Ticonderoga. June 17 witnessed, at Bunker Hill, an unprecedented gathering from all parts of the country, Northern and Southern soldiers vying in devotion to the flag of the Union.
_The Centennial Exhibition._–To commemorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, an exhibition of the arts and industries of all nations was held at Philadelphia, during the summer of 1876. The beautiful grounds of Fairmount Park were the scene of this imposing display. The principal edifices were the Main Exhibition Building, the Memorial Hall, the Machinery Hall, the Horticultural and Agricultural Buildings, and the Woman’s Pavilion. The first named covered an area of over twenty-six acres In addition to these structures, there were more than two hundred smaller buildings scattered over the extensive grounds. The exhibition opened May 10, and lasted six months. The average daily attendance was about 61,000 persons.
[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION]
[Footnote: See Barnes’s Hundred Years of American Independence, a supplement to which is entirely devoted to the Centennial Exhibition.]
[Footnote: The Black Hills which are in Dakota and Wyoming belonged to the Sioux Reservation But gold having been found there bands of miners began to prospect on the Indian domain, a bill was introduced into Congress to extinguish the Indian title to a portion of the Black Hill region and finally a new treaty as negotiated But the unwillingness of the Indians to leave the encroachments of the whites and the advent of surveyors and troops all combined to provoke hostilities]
The Sioux Indians having refused to go upon the reservation assigned them by treaty and committed many atrocities, a force of regular troops was sent against them. General Custer led the advance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General Terry moved up the Big Horn to attack them in the rear. On the 25th of June, General Custer suddenly came upon the enemy. Without waiting for support, he detached Colonel Reno with four companies to fall upon the back of the Indian village, while he immediately charged the savages in front with the remainder of his command. A desperate conflict ensued. General Custer, his two brothers, his nephew, and every one of his men were killed. Colonel Keno was surrounded, but held his ground on the bluffs until reinforcements arrived. The Indians were soon beaten on every hand, and by the following spring were so scattered as to be comparatively harmless.
[Illustration: GROUP OF SIOUX INDIANS.]
POLITICAL PARTIES.–The republican party nominated General Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, and Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. The democratic party chose Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The independent greenback party selected Peter Cooper, of New York, and Samuel F. Cary, of Ohio. This presidential campaign was so hotly contested between the republicans and the democrats, and such irregularities were charged against the elections in Oregon, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, that both these parties claimed the victory. In order to settle the dispute, Congress agreed to refer the contested election returns to a _Joint Electoral Commission_, composed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court.
[Illustration: RUTHERFORD B. HAYES.]
[Footnote: The Senators chosen were Messrs. Bayard, Edmunds, Frelinghuysen, Morton, and Thurman. The Representatives were Messrs. Abbott, Garfield, Hoar, Hunton, and Payne. The Associate Justices of the Supreme Court selected were Messrs. Bradley, Clifford, Field, Miller, and Strong.]
This body decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. The republican candidates were therefore declared to be elected.
[Footnote: The principal political questions which agitated the country during this campaign were, (1) the Southern policy of the government, and (2) the civil service reform. It was held on one side that negroes and republicans at the South were intimidated by force and prevented from voting, and that the presence of the United States troops was necessary to the preservation of the rights of the citizens, free discussion, a free ballot, and an enforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, that the use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional; that the intimidation was only imaginary, or could be readily controlled by the local authorities; and that the presence of the military provoked violence and was a constant insult and menace to the States. President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 175), introduced into our politics the principle of “rotation in office.” This policy steadily gained favor until Marcy’s maxim, “To the victors belong the spoils,” became the commonly-accepted view; and after every important election, the successful party was accustomed to fill even the menial offices of government with its favorites. Under such a system, the qualification of the applicant was of much less importance than the service he had done the party. Hayes promised to make “no dismissal except for cause, and no promotion except for merit.”]
(NINETEENTH PRESIDENT: 1877-1881.)
DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.–_U. S. Troops at the South Withdrawn_. –President Hayes’s Southern policy was one of conciliation. The troops which had hitherto sustained the republican State governments in South Carolina and Louisiana were withdrawn, and democratic officials at once took control of the local affairs.
_A Railroad Strike_ was inaugurated by workmen on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the summer of 1877. The cause was a reduction of wages by the managers of the different roads in the country. Seventy trains were stopped near Martinsburg, W. Va., and the blockade was raised only by the arrival of regular troops. The strike, however, rapidly extended to nearly all the principal railroads in the Northern States. Travel was suspended, and business came to a standstill. A tumult occurred in Baltimore, which was suppressed with some bloodshed. There was a terrible riot at Pittsburg, Pa., and cars, buildings, and an immense amount of property were destroyed, the loss of the Pennsylvania Railroad being estimated at $3,000,000. The troops at last quelled the disturbance, but at the cost of about one hundred lives. There were alarming riots also at Hornellsville, N. Y., at Chicago, Ill., at Louisville, Ky., and at Reading, Pa. These were suppressed, in part, by regular troops, but the militia generally proved reliable, and the citizen soldiery in this perilous crisis merited the gratitude of the republic. Quiet was finally restored, but the coal regions of Pennsylvania remained for a long time in disorder.
[Illustration: THE SILVER DOLLAR (1878)]
_”Bland Silver Bill” _–In 1873, Congress demonetized silver, and made gold the sole standard of our currency. Opposition to this measure gradually arose, and in December, 1877, a bill was introduced into Congress making silver a legal tender in payment of debts. This measure, after having been amended, was passed (Feb. 21, 1878).
_Fishery Award_ (1878).–Difficulties having arisen between the United States and Great Britain concerning the fisheries of the Northeastern coast, the matter was referred, by the Treaty of Washington (p. 289), to a commission for adjudication. This body sat at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and awarded Great Britain the sum of $5,500,000.
_The Yellow Fever_ broke out in New Orleans during the summer of 1878, and spread northward along the Mississippi into Missouri and Tennessee. Over 20,000 cases, with 7,000 deaths, were reported.
_The Resumption_ of specie payments (Jan. 1, 1879) through the entire country, brought gold and silver once more into general circulation.
_Indian Difficulty_ (1879).–The Ute Indians at the White River agency, dissatisfied by the encroachments of the miners and the non-payment of money promised by the government, took up arms, massacred the white men at the agent’s station, and also Major Thornburgh, who, with a small force, was marching to subdue the revolt. The U. S. troops were hurried thither, and peace was once more restored. The women and children were found to have been saved by a friendly chief.
STATES ADMITTED DURING THIS EPOCH.–_Nebraska_, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. The name signifies “water valley.” _Colorado_, the thirty-eighth State, was received March 3, 1875. Its constitution, however, was not ratified by the people until July 1, 1876; whence it is known as the “Centennial State.” This region was explored by Coronado in 1540, while De Soto was rambling over the site of the future Gulf States.
[Illustration: UNITED WE STAND, DIVIDED WE FALL.]
These questions are placed at the close of the work rather than at the foot of each page, in order to compel a more independent use of the book. As far as possible, topical recitations should be encouraged. On naming the subject of a paragraph, the pupil should be expected to tell all he knows about it. A little patience and practice in this method will achieve wonderful results. The following pages often present topical questions in the hope of gradually leading the pupil to this system of study. The figures refer to the pages of the book.
9. From what continent did the first inhabitants of America probably come? How did they get here? (At that time it is probable that Behring Strait was not cut through, and the two continents were connected.) What remains of these people are found? Where do they occur?
10. What proof is there of their antiquity? Describe the ruins at Newark, Ohio. The mound at St. Louis. The embankment in Adams County, Ohio. Are earth-works permanent? Describe the ruins in South America. Who were the mound-builders?
11. What became of them? Who succeeded them? How did the Indians compare with them? What do you say of the number of the Indians? Where most numerous? Were there any blacksmiths, carpenters, etc., among them?
12-13. Were they a progressive people? In what were they skilled? How did they regard labor? 12. Describe the life of their women.
14-16. The Indian disposition. His power of endurance. His religion. Did he have any idea of God? What policy should be pursued toward the Indian? Who were the Northmen? What traditions about their having discovered and settled America? Are these stories credible? Are there any remains of this people now existing? Were their discoveries of any value? At what date does the history of this country begin? Name the subjects and limits of the six epochs into which this history is divided.
19. What was the state of geographical knowledge in Europe in the fifteenth century? Why could not sailors have crossed the ocean before as well as then? Why were books of travel more abundant then? Why so eagerly read?
20. By what route were the goods from the East obtained? What was the problem of that day? Columbus’s idea? What facts strengthened his view? (See p. 21.) Tell something of his life.
21. Why did he seek assistance? Before whom did he lay his plan? How was it received? Did the king treat him fairly? To whom did Columbus apply next? How was he regarded? What reply was made him?
22. What did Columbus’s friends do for him? What offer did Queen Isabella make? Were her jewels sold? What new trouble assailed Columbus? What vessels composed his fleet? Give some of the incidents of the voyage.
23 Did Columbus waver? (There seems to be no truth in the common statement that he promised to turn back, if he did not discover land in three days.) Describe the discovery of land. The landing. When and where was this? What region did Columbus think he had reached? What was the result? For what did he search? What other islands did he discover?
24. Describe his reception on his return. How many subsequent voyages did Columbus make? What settlement did he make? (p. 289.) Did he discover the main-land? Did he know that he had found a new continent? Where is Columbus’s tomb? How was the continent named?
25. What was the plan of John Cabot? What discoveries did he make? Did his discoveries antedate those of Columbus? Where and when is it probable the American continent was discovered? What discoveries did Sebastian Cabot make? Did England improve them? Of what value were they?
26. What four nations explored the territory of the future United States? What portion of the continent did each explore? What was the feeling in Spain? What effect was produced? Why did Ponce de Leon come to the new world?
27. What land did he discover? Why did he so name it? What success did he meet? What discovery did Balboa make? Describe the expedition of De Narvaez. Its fate. Of De Soto. Of De Ayllon.
28. What region did De Soto traverse? Did he make any valuable discoveries? What river was his burial place? When? What became of his companions?
29. When, where, and by whom was the first town in the United States founded? Meaning of the word California in the sixteenth century? Why did Cortez explore that region? Who made the first voyage along the Pacific coast? Which is the second oldest town in the United States? When and by whom founded? What was the great wish of maritime nations?
30. What was the extent of the Spanish possessions in the new world? Who was the first French navigator to reach the continent? When? What name did he give it? Who discovered the River St. Lawrence? Why did he so name it? _Ans._ From the name of the day on which it was discovered. Why was Montreal so named? Describe the attempt to plant a colony of convicts. Why did this fail?
31. Who were the Huguenots? What was Coligny’s plan? Who led the first expedition? Fate of the colony? The second expedition? Amusing story of the longevity of the Indians?
32. Fate of the colony? What French navigator was the next to ascend the St. Lawrence? How did he find things at Hochelaga? When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement made in America? How much land was granted?
33. When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement made in Canada? What journey did Champlain make? What discoveries? The consequence of his trip? Who explored the Mississippi valley? What relics of them remain? Tell something of their heroism. Of Father Marquette. Of his death.
34. Of La Salle. What were the results of French enterprise? How did it compare with English enterprise? When did the English awake to the importance of American discovery? Who made the first attempt to carry out Cabot’s plan?
35. What success did he have? Was the discovery of gold profitable? What discovery did Sir Francis Drake make?
36. What was the view of Sir Humphrey Gilbert? His fate? Who adopted his plan? Give some account of Sir Walter Raleigh. Why was Virginia so named? Where did Raleigh plant his first colony? Give its history.
37. What did the colonists introduce into England on their return? Story told of Raleigh’s smoking? Give the history of the second colony. What kept the interest in America alive? How did Gosnold shorten the voyage across the Atlantic?
38. What discoveries did Gosnold make? Captain Pring? Results of these explorations? What was South Virginia? North Virginia? Where, when, and by whom was the first English settlement made in the United States? What became of the colony sent out the same year by the Plymouth company? Tell some of the provisions of the charter granted to these companies. What is a charter? _Ans_. A document which confers the title to certain land, and, not unlike a constitution, defines the form of government, and secures to the people certain rights and privileges.
39. Who entered New York harbor next after Verrazani? Was Hudson a Dutchman? (His given name was Henry, not Heindrich, as often stated.) What river did he discover? What claim did the Dutch found on this discovery? What name did they give to the region? State the claims of these four nations, and the settlements they had made.
40. Why were these claims conflicting? Had these nations any idea of the extent of the country? Which nation ultimately secured the whole region? Which centuries were characterized by explorations, and which century by settlements? Name the permanent settlements which were made at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
45. Name the thirteen colonies. Were they united during this epoch?
46. What was the character of the Virginia colonists? What was their success? Describe the services of John Smith. Give some of the incidents of his life.
47. What was his theory of founding a colony? Tell the story of his capture by the Indians.
48. What change in the government of the colony was made by the second charter? Was it based on the principle of self-government? Why did Smith leave? What was its effect on the colony? Tell something of the “Starving Time.”
49. How did relief come? What change was made by the third charter? Describe the marriage of Pocahontas. Her visit to England. Where was the first legislative body held?
50. When was the first constitution given? Of what value were these charters? Give some particulars of the prosperity of the colony. Of the culture of tobacco. Of the purchase of wives. When and how was slavery introduced? Why?
61. Why did the Indians now become hostile? Give some account of the massacre. Its result. What new change was made in the government? Cause? What was the Navigation Act? Why was it oppressive? What was the conduct of the assembly?
52. What division arose among the people? Give the history of Bacon’s rebellion. Was Bacon a patriot or a rebel? What was the conduct of Berkeley? What curious fact illustrates the ruling sentiment of Massachusetts and of Virginia at that time? What coincidence between this event and the Revolution?
53. Describe John Smith’s explorations at the north. What authority was granted to the Council of New England? What became of the Plymouth Company? Give some account of the landing of the Pilgrims. Who were the Puritans? What was the difference between the Puritans and the Pilgrims? Why did the Pilgrims come to this country? When?
54. What was their character? What story is told to illustrate their piety? Describe their sufferings. What is “Plymouth Rock”? What do you mean by Dec. 11, O.S. and Dec. 21, N.S.? Why did not the Indians disturb them?
55. What Indians visited them in the spring? How did Governor Bradford reply to Canonicus’s threat? Tell about the scarcity of food. How did the plan of working in common succeed?
56. Did they have any more privileges than the Jamestown colonists? Who settled about Massachusetts Bay? Why was this colony popular? Who founded Salem? Boston? Did the Puritans tolerate other Churches? Why not? Give an account of the difficulty with Roger Williams.
67. Where did he go? What settlement did he found? Why did Mrs. Hutchinson become obnoxious? State the treatment of the Quakers. What union of the colonies was now formed? What was its object? What Indian chiefs befriended Massachusetts and Virginia in their early history? (The grandson of Massasoit was sold as a slave in the West Indies.)
58. Give an account of King Philip’s war. Of the “swamp fight.” Of the attack on Hadley. How did the colonists protect themselves?
59. How was the war finally ended? How did the Navigation Act affect Massachusetts? Did the Puritans obey it? What change now took place in the government? Give some account of Andros’s rule. What action did the colonists take? What form of government was finally imposed upon them?
60. Give an account of the Salem witchcraft. What is a “witch”? Was this delusion common at that time? What two colonies were intimately united to Massachusetts? What was Laconia?
61. Give an account of the early settlement of New Hampshire. Of Maine. What is said of the claims made upon the land by the heirs of these proprietors? Why are these States so named? Who obtained a grant of the territory now embraced in Connecticut? Who claimed this region?
62. Give an account of the early settlement at Windsor. Hartford. Saybrook. How were the Narraganset Indians kept from joining the Pequods against the whites? Describe the attack upon the Pequod fort.
63. What three colonies were formed in Connecticut? What peculiarities in the government of each? How were they combined into one colony? Why was the charter so highly prized? What story is told of Andros’s visit?
64. What colony was established the same year that Hooker went to Hartford? What exiles settled Rhode Island? Why was the island so called? What fact illustrates Williams’s generosity?
65. What was his favorite idea? Why was not the colony allowed to join the New England Union? How was a charter secured? What was its character? Give an account of the settlement of New York by the Dutch. Who were the “patroons”?
60. What was the character of the history of New York under its four Dutch governors? Who was the ablest of them? How much territory did he claim? How did he settle the boundary lines? Tell something of the growth of liberty among the people.
67. Describe old Peter’s reluctance to surrender to the English. Why was the colony named New York? Were the people pleased with the English rule? Was the English occupation permanent? Was civil liberty secured under Andros? Dongan? What course did the Duke of York take when he became King of England? Tell how Captain Leisler came to assume the government. Of his trial and execution.
68. In what colony was New Jersey formerly embraced? Who first settled it? When, to whom, and by whom was the land granted? Where and by whom was the first English settlement made? Why so called? How divided? Who settled the different parts?
69. How did New Jersey come to be united to New York? To be made a separate royal province? Where and by whom was the first settlement in Delaware made? In Pennsylvania? Who was the founder of Pennsylvania? Give some account of William Penn. Of the Quakers.
70. How did Penn come to obtain a grant of this region? Why was it so named? What was Delaware styled? How did Penn settle the territory? What city did he found? Meaning of the name? Rapidity of its growth? What was the “Great Code”? Was religious toleration granted?
71. Give an account of Penn’s treaty with the Indians. In what spirit did Penn treat the colony?
72. How came Delaware to be separated from Pennsylvania? Was this separation total? How did Pennsylvania secure the title to its soil? With what intent did Lord Baltimore secure a grant of land in America? When was the first settlement made? Why was Maryland so named? What class of people generally settled this country?
73. What advantage did the Maryland charter confer? What was the “Toleration Act”? How did religious toleration vary in the colonies? Give an account of Claiborne’s rebellion. Of the difficulties between the Catholics and the Protestants.
74. What territory was granted to Lord Clarendon? By whom was the Albemarle colony settled? What course did the proprietors take? By whom was the Carteret colony settled? What location did they select? What do you say of the rapidity of its growth?
75. Who were the Huguenots? What beneficial influence did they have on the colony? What was the “Grand Model”? How was it unfitted for a new country? How was it received? What were the relations between the proprietors and settlers? How were the difficulties ended? How came Carolina to be divided?
76. By what coincidence is Georgia linked with Washington? With what intention was this colony planned? Character of the settlers? Restrictions of the trustees? Result?
77. How many inter-colonial wars were there? If you include the Spanish war? Duration of King William’s war? Cause? Describe the Indian attacks upon the colonists. Tell the story of Mrs. Dustin.
78. What attacks were made by the colonists in return? Were they successful? What was the result of the war?
79. Length of Queen Anne’s war? Cause? Where was the war mainly fought? Effect upon New England? What attack by the colonists at the south? At the north? Tell the story of Mrs. Williams.
80. Result of the war? Length of King George’s war? Cause? Principal event? Give an account of the capture of Louisburg. Of the Spanish war.
81. Result of the war? Length of the French and Indian war? Cause? Occasions of quarrel?
82. Give an account of Washington’s journey to Lake Erie. His return. Result of his journey.
83. What did the French do in the spring? The Virginia troops under Washington? Fate of Jumonville? Give an account of the capture of Fort Necessity by the French. Who fired the first gun of this war? Name the five objective points of this war.
84. Why were they so obstinately attacked and defended? Give an account of the defeat of General Braddock. Character of Braddock. Conduct of Washington.
85. Give an account of the second expedition. Who finally captured the fort? What city now occupies its site? What was the principal cause of the easy capture of the fort? What success did the English meet in Acadia? What cruel act disgraced their victory? What attempt was made on Louisburg? Who finally captured it?
86. Describe the battle of Lake George. Who earned the glory of this victory and who got it? Tell the story of Dieskau’s death. The fate of Fort William Henry. Describe the attack on Fort Ticonderoga by Abercrombie.
87. When were both forts captured? Describe the two attempts to capture Niagara. Who forced it to surrender? In what year did these successes occur? Describe the difficulties which General Wolfe met in his attack on Quebec.
88, 89. How did he overcome them? Describe the battle on the Plains of Abraham. What was the result of the battle? The conditions of peace?
90. Cause of Pontiac’s war? Result? Fate of Pontiac? What stratagems did the Indians use? Effects of the French and Indian war?
91. How did the British officers treat the colonial officers? Condition of the colonies? How many kinds of government? Name and define each.
92. How many colleges? Did the English government support educational interests? Condition of agriculture? Manufactures?
93 Commerce? Was money plenty? Were there many books or papers? How did the people travel?
94. Tell something about the first public conveyance. Condition of morals in New England. Name some peculiar customs. Some rigid laws. Who was entitled to the prefix Mr.? What were common people called? Laws with regard to drinking? Using tobacco?
95. Tell something of the habits of the people in New York. What customs familiar to us are of Dutch origin? How did the style of living at the south differ from that at the north?
96. Describe a southern plantation. What is said of Mount Vernon flour? Of the luxurious living? State of education in New England? Tell something of the support given to schools.
97. Of the founding of Yale College. Of their town meetings. Of the state of education in the middle colonies. How were the ministers’ salaries met?
98. What was the state of education in the southern colonies? Provision made for public worship? Give some idea of the early Virginia laws concerning worship.
101. How did England treat the colonies? Give some illustrations.
102. What was the tendency of this course of conduct? What was the direct cause of war? What were Writs of Assistance? The Stamp Act? Tell the story of Patrick Henry.
103 What efforts were made to resist the law? What effect did they have on the English government? Was this permanent? What was the Mutiny Act? Why was it passed?
104. How was it received by the colonists? Tell about the Boston Massacre. When? The Boston Tea Party. Why was the tea thrown overboard? For what is Faneuil Hall noted? What did the English now do?
106, 107. What parties were formed? What action did the colonists take? When and where was the “First Continental Congress” held? What action did it take? When and where was the first blood spilled? Describe how the battle of Lexington occurred.
108,109. Effects of this battle. Tell how the battle of Bunker Hill occurred. Describe it. Tell something of “Old Put.”
110. Effect of the battle. Describe the death of General Warren. Give some account of Ethan Alien. Why were the New Hampshire Grants so called? Describe the capture of Ticonderoga.
111. Meeting of Second Continental Congress. Its action. What was the condition of the army? What expedition was undertaken against Canada?
112. Describe the attack upon Quebec. Its end. How were the British forced to leave Boston?
113. How had they treated the Boston people? The Boston boys? Describe the attack on Fort Moultrie. Its effect. Tell the story of Sergeant Jasper.
114. When was the Declaration of Independence adopted? How many colonies voted for it? Tell the story of the old “liberty bell,” How did the campaign near New York occur? Describe the battle of Long Island.
115. What decided it in favor of the English? By what providential circumstance did the Americans escape? What were the prison ships? Who were the Hessians? Tell the story of Nathan Hale.
116, 117. What battles occurred while Washington was falling back? Describe his retreat through New Jersey. How did he escape? What general was captured by the enemy? What was the condition of the country? Describe the battle of Trenton. Tell the story of Rall.
118. The effect of this battle. Name the battles of 1776 in order. Describe the battle of Princeton. What providential circumstance favored the attack?
119. How did the battle of Brandywine occur? Describe it. What decided it in favor of the English? What previous battle did it resemble? Give some account of La Fayette.
120, 121. Describe the battle of Germantown. Why did the Americans fail? How did the campaign in Pennsylvania close? What disastrous attempt was made by the British at the north? Describe the burning of Danbury, the capture of General Prescott, and the murder of Jane McCrea. What events attended General Burgoyne’s march south? What measures were taken to check his advance?
122. Who succeeded General Schuyler? What was Schuyler’s conduct? What events deranged Burgoyne’s plans? How was the siege of Fort Schuyler (Stanwix) raised? Tell something of Kosciusko.
123. Of the battle of Bennington. For what incident is it noted?
124 Describe the first battle of Saratoga. The second battle. Who was the hero of the fight? How did General Fraser die? Tell some incidents of the campaign.
125. Effect of these fights? Name the battles of 1777 in order. Describe the sufferings at Valley Forge.
126. How could the soldiers endure such misery? What news came in the spring? Story told of Washington by Mr. Potts? Tell something of the Conway cabal. What story is told of General Reed?
127. What caused the battle of Monmouth to happen? Describe its prominent incident. Tell the history of Benjamin Franklin.
128. Tell the story of Mary Pitcher. What became of General Lee? What campaign was now planned by the aid of the French? How did it turn out? Describe the Wyoming massacre. What poem has been written upon this event? _Ans._ Campbell’s Gertrude of Wyoming. Name the battles of 1778 in order.
129. Why was the war now transferred to the south? How did the campaign open? Describe the attack on Savannah. Who were killed? Tell something of Count Pulaski. Was the French aid of great value?
130. What characterized the campaign at the north? Tell the story of General Putnam. Describe the capture of Stony Point.
131. General Sullivan’s expedition. What do you say of the naval successes?
132. Describe the contest between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. What colony was conquered by the British during this year? Name the principal battles of 1779 in order.
133. What city was now captured? What followed? How did the battle of Camden occur? Describe it. What was its result? Tell something of the famous partisan warfare of those times.
134. Name some leaders. Story of Marion. Some partisan victories. Death of Colonel Hayne. Effect of this independent warfare. Tell something of the depreciation of the continental money.
135. What mutiny occurred? Tell the story of Arnold’s treason.
136. Of Andre’s capture and fate. Of Arnold’s escape and reward. In what estimation was he held? Name the principal events of 1780.
137. Condition of the army at the south? Who now took command? Describe the battle of the Cowpens. Describe Greene’s celebrated retreat. How many times did the rain save him?
138. By what two battles was the contest at the south closed? Were the English or Americans victorious? Give anecdotes illustrative of the patriotism of the women. Character of General Greene.
139. Where did Cornwallis go after the failure of his southern campaign? What kind of war did he wage in Virginia? Why did he retire to Yorktown? What plan did Washington now adopt?
140. Describe the siege. Its result. The surrender. The effect. On what plundering tours did Arnold go? Story told of Governor Nelson? Name the principal battles of 1781 in order.
141. How was the news of Cornwallis’s surrender received?
142. Was all peril to our liberties over? What was the condition of the country? What base offer was made to Washington? How did he pacify the army? When was peace signed? What was the result? What course did Washington take?
143. Tell something of the weakness of the government. What held the colonies together? Cause of Shays’s rebellion? What need was felt? How was it met? When was the Constitution adopted? What parties arose? How soon was the Constitution ratified? How many States were necessary? When did the new government go into operation?
147, 148. Limits of this epoch? Its characteristic idea? Who was the first President of the United States? When and where was he inaugurated? Where was the capital? Name its changes. What was the popular feeling toward Washington? Give some account of Washington’s life and character.
151. What difficulties beset the government? What departments were established? Name the members of the first Cabinet. What financial measures were adopted? By whose advice?
152. What did Webster say of Hamilton? Give an account of the whisky rebellion. Of the Indian war at the northwest. What difficulty arose with England?
153. How was it settled? How was the treaty received in this