be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which he attempts to correct; because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable performance of the exercise. But those who are very quick at reading, may perform it _tolerably_, by consulting the book at the time, for what they do not remember. The answers to these questions will embrace all the main text of the work; and, if any further examination be thought necessary, extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose.]
LESSON I.–GRAMMAR.
1. What is the name, or title, of this book? 2. What is Grammar? 3. What is an English Grammar? 4. What is English Grammar, in itself? and what knowledge does it imply? 5. If grammar is the art of reading, writing, and speaking, define these actions. What is it, _to read_? 6. What is it, _to write_? 7. What is it, _to speak_? 8. How is grammar to be taught, and by what means are its principles to be made known? 9. What is a perfect definition? 10. What is an example, as used in teaching? 11. What is a rule of grammar? 12. What is an exercise? 13. What was language at first, and what is it now? 14. Of what two kinds does the composition of language consist? and how do they differ? 15. What are the least parts of language? 16. What has discourse to do with sentences? or sentences, with points? 17. In extended compositions, what is the order of the parts, upwards from a sentence? 18. What, then, is the common order of literary division, downwards, throughout? 19. Are all literary works divided exactly in this way? 20. How is Grammar divided? 21. Of what does Orthography treat? 22. Of what does Etymology treat? 23. Of what does Syntax treat? 24. Of what does Prosody treat?
PART FIRST, ORTHOGRAPHY.
LESSON II.–LETTERS.
1. Of what does Orthography treat? 2. What is a letter? 3. What is an elementary sound of human voice, or speech? 4. What name is given to the sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded? 5. How many letters are there in English? and how many sounds do they represent? 6. In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 7. What variety is there in the letters? and how are they always the same? 8. What different sorts of types, or styles of letters, are used in English? 9. What are the names of the letters in English? 10. What are their names in both numbers, singular and plural? 11. Into what general classes are the letters divided? 12. What is a vowel? 13. What is a consonant? 14. What letters are vowels? and what, consonants? 15. When are _w_ and _y_ consonants? and when, vowels? 16. How are the consonants divided? 17. What is a semivowel? 18. What is a mute? 19. What letters are reckoned semivowels? and how many of these are aspirates? 20. What letters are called liquids? and why? 21. What letters are reckoned mutes? and which of them are imperfect mutes?
LESSON III.–SOUNDS.
1. What is meant, when we speak of the powers of the letters? 2. Are the sounds of a language fewer than its words? 3. How are different vowel sounds produced? 4. What are the vowel sounds in English? 5. How may these sounds be modified in the formation of syllables? 6. Can you form a word upon each by means of an _f_? 7. Will you try the series again with a _p_? 8. How may the vowel sounds be written? and how uttered when they are not words? 9. Which of the vowel sounds form words? and what of the rest? 10. How many and what are the consonant sounds in English? 11. In what series of words may all these sounds be heard? 12. In what series of words may each of them be heard two or three times? 13. What is said of the sounds of _j_ and _x_? 14. What is said of the sounds of _c_ and _g_? 15. What is said of _sc_, or _s_ before _c_? 16. What, of _ce, ci_, and _ch_? 17. What sounds has the consonant _g_? 18. In how many different ways can the letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters?
LESSON IV.–CAPITALS.
1. What characters are employed in English? 2. Why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are _Italics_ chiefly used? 5. In preparing a manuscript, how do we mark these things for the printer? 6. What distinction of form belongs to each of the letters? 7. What is said of small letters? and why are capitals used? 8. What things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals? 9. How many rules for capitals are given in this book? and what are their titles? 10. What says Rule 1st of _books_? 11. What says Rule 2d of _first words_? 12. What says Rule 3d of _names of Deity_? 13. What says Rule 4th of _proper names_? 14. What says Rule 5th of _titles_? 15. What says Rule 6th of _one capital_? 16. What says Rule 7th of _two capitals_? 17. What says Rule 8th of _compounds_? 18. What says Rule 9th of _apposition_? 19. What says Rule 10th of _personifications_? 20. What says Rule 11th of _derivatives_? 21. What says Rule 12th of _I and O_? 22. What says Rule 13th of _poetry_? 23. What says Rule 14th of _examples_? 24. What says Rule 15th of _chief words_? 25. What says Rule 16th of _needless capitals_?
[Now turn to the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON V.–SYLLABLES.
1. What is a syllable? 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear? 3. Under what names are words classed according to the number of their syllables? 4. Which of the letters can form syllables of themselves? and which cannot? 5. What is a diphthong? 6. What is a proper diphthong? 7. What is an improper diphthong? 8. What is a triphthong? 9. What is a proper triphthong? 10. What is an improper triphthong? 11. How many and what are the diphthongs in English? 12. How many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How many and what are the proper diphthongs? 14. How many and what are the improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language? 16. How many and what are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we for dividing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of _consonants_? 20. What says Rule 2d of _vowels_? 21. What says Rule 3d of _terminations_? 22. What says Rule 4th of _prefixes_? 23. What says Rule 5th of _compounds_? 24. What says Rule 6th of _lines full_?
[Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VI.–WORDS.
1. What is a word? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to _species_ and _figure_? 3. What is a primitive word? 4. What is a derivative word? 5. What is a simple word? 6. What is a compound word? 7. How do permanent compounds differ from others? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 9. What says Rule 1st of _compounds_? 10. What says Rule 2d of _simples_? 11. What says Rule 3d of _the sense_? 12. What says Rule 4th of _ellipses_? 13. What says Rule 5th of _the hyphen_? 14. What says Rule 6th of _no hyphen_?
[Now turn to the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VII.–SPELLING.
1. What is spelling? 2. How is this art to be acquired? and why so? 3. Why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately? 4. Is it then any disgrace to spell words erroneously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 7. What says Rule 1st of _final f, l_, or _s_? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule? 9. What says Rule 2d of _other finals_? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule? 11. What says Rule 3d of the _doubling_ of consonants? 12. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th _against the doubling_ of consonants? 14. Under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this Rule noticed? 15. What says Rule 5th of _final ck_? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with _c_ only? 17. What says Rule 6th of the _retaining_ of double letters before affixes? 18. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 19. What says Rule 7th of the _retaining_ of double letters after prefixes? 20. What observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule?
LESSON VIII.–SPELLING.
21. What says Rule 8th of _final ll_, and of _final l single_? 22. What words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th? and why? 23. What says Rule 9th of _final e omitted_? 24. Under what three heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed? 25. What says Rule 10th of _final e retained?_ 26. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule 11th of _final y changed?_ 28. Under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed? 29. What says Rule 12th of _final y unchanged?_ 30. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 31. What says Rule 13th of the terminations _ize_ and _ise?_ 32. Under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed? 33. What says Rule 14th of _compounds?_ 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of _usage_, as a law of spelling?
[Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and their exceptions.]
CHAPTER VI.–FOR WRITING.
EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY.
[Fist] [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and not explained in the general Key, that they may he corrected by the pupil _in writing_. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily discern wherein the errors lie, and be able to make the necessary corrections.]
EXERCISE I.–CAPITALS.
“Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus.”–_Harrison’s Gram._, p. 68. “The words in italics are parsed in the same manner.”–_Maltby’s Gram._, p. 69. “It may be read by those who do not understand latin.”–_Barclay’s Works_, Vol. iii, p. 262. “A roman _s_ being added to a word in italics or small capitals.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 215. “This is not simply a gallicism, but a corruption of the French _on_; itself a corruption.”– _Ib._, p. 228. “The Gallicism, ‘_it is me_,’ is perpetually striking the ear in London.”–_Ib._, p. 316. “‘Almost nothing,’ is a common Scotticism, equally improper: it should be, ‘scarcely any thing.'”–_Ib._, p. 333. “To use _learn_ for _teach_, is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully avoided.”–See _ib._, p. 261. “A few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our English bible.”–_Wilcox’s Gram._, p. 40. “The translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original are uniformly kept distinct.”–_Ib._, p. 40. “More like heaven on earth, than the holy land would have been.”–_Anti-Slavery Mag._, Vol. i, p. 72. “There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of Pythagoras.”– _Lempriere’s Dict._ “Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth and strengthen Nature’s original Vigour.”–_Harris’s Hermes_, p. 295. “O that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence of brotherly love, all the distinctions of methodists, independents, baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, unitarians, in the glorious name of christians.”–KNOX: _Churchill’s Gram._, p. 173. “Pythagoras long ago remarked, ‘that ability and necessity dwell near each other.'”–_Student’s Manual_, p. 285.
“The Latin Writers Decency neglect, But modern Readers challenge more Respect.” –_Brightland’s Gram._, p. 172.
EXERCISE II.–SYLLABLES.
1. Correct _Bolles_, in the division of the following words: “Del-ia, Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, heigh-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly, mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous, tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar.”–_Revised Spelling-Book_: New London, 1831.
2. Correct _Sears_, in the division of the following words: “A-quil-a, hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry, thor-ny, phil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry, re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti-on, au-spici-ous, fac-titi-ous, fla-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on.”–_Standard Spelling-Book_: “New Haven,” 1826.
3. Correct _Bradley_, in the division of the following words: “Jes-ter, rai-ny, forg-e-ry, fin-e-ry, spic-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-e-ry, fer-riage, line-age, cri-ed, tri-ed, su-ed, slic-ed, forc-ed, pledg-ed, sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed.”–_Improved Spelling-Book_: Windsor, 1815.
4. Correct _Burhans_, in the division of the following words: “Boar-der, brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ten, glea-ner, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy, fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-er-all-y, lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti-call-y, sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y, nesc-i-ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on, suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned.”–_Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book_:[128] Philadelphia, 1823.
5. Correct _Marshall_, in the division of the following words: “Trench-er, trunch-eon, dros-sy, glos-sy, glas-sy, gras-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses, cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-ver-sing, mois-ture, join-ture, qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem.”–_New Spelling-Book_: New York, 1836.
6. Correct _Emerson_, in the division of the following words: “Dus-ty mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy, spee-dy, drea-ry, fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, bland-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning, a-noth-er.”–_National Spelling-Book_: Boston, 1828.
“Two Vowels meeting, each with its full Sound, Always to make Two Syllables are bound.”–_Brightland’s Gram._, p. 64.
EXERCISE III.–FIGURE OF WORDS.
“I was surprised by the return of my long lost brother.”–_Parker’s Exercises in English Composition_, p. 5. “Such singular and unheard of clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence.”–_Ib._, p. 10. “I perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of sun-shine.”–_Ib._, p. 11. “To preserve the unity of a sentence, it is sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute, instead of the verb and conjunction.”–_Ib._, p. 17. “Severity and hard hearted opinions accord with the temper of the times.”–_Ib._, p. 18. “That poor man was put into the mad house.”–_Ib._, p. 22. “This fellow must be put into the poor house.”–_Ib._ p. 22. “I have seen the breast works and other defences of earth, that were thrown up.”–_Ib._, p. 24. “Cloven footed animals are enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground.”–_Ib._, p. 25. “Self conceit blasts the prospects of many a youth.”–_Ib._, p. 26. “Not a moment should elapse without bringing some thing to pass.”–_Ib._, p. 36. “A school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the Roman camp.”–_Ib._, p. 39. “The pupil may now write a description of the following objects. A school room. A steam boat. A writing desk. A dwelling house. A meeting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill.”–_Ib._, p. 45. “Every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered.”–_Ib._, p. 49. “I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance.”–_Ib._, p. 51. “The author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade.”–_Ib._, p. 60. “The all wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue.”–_Ib._, p. 74. “There is something of self denial in the very idea of it.”–_Ib._, p. 75. “Age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy.”–_Ib._, p. 76. “Pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes.”–_Ib._, p. 91. “_Club_, or _crump, footed_, Loripes; _Rough_, or _leather, footed_, Plumipes.”–_Ainsworth’s Dict._
“The honey-bags steal from the humble bees, And for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs.” –SHAK.: _Joh.’s Dict., w. Glowworm._
“The honeybags steal from the bumblebees, And for night tapers crop their waxen thighs.” –SHAK.: _Joh.’s Dict., w. Humblebee._
“The honey bags steal from the humble-bees, And, for night tapers crop their waxen thighs.” –_Dodd’s Beauties of Shak._, p. 51.
EXERCISE IV.–SPELLING.
“His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers wainscoted.”–ADDISON: _Johnson’s Dict., w. Antechamber_. “Nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks.”–LOCKE: _Ib., w. Quicksighted_. “At the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinity.”–L’ESTRANGE: _Ib., m. Blunderhead_. “On the topmast, the yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly.”–SHAK.: _Ib., w. Bowsprit_. “This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody.”–ID.: _Ib., w. Nobody_. “Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man.”–ID.: _Ib., w. Fulfraught_. “Till blinded by some Jack o’Lanthorn sprite.”–_Snelling’s Gift_, p. 62. “The beauties you would have me eulogise.”–_Ib._, p. 14. “They rail at me–I gaily laugh at them.”–_Ib._, p. 13. “Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall.”–_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 143. “The terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous.”–_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 336. “Lillied, _adj._ Embellished with lilies.”–_Chalmers’s Dict._ “They seize the compendious blessing without exertion and without reflexion.”–_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 428. “The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the cry that demands their blood.”–_Ib._, p. 433. “It meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised.”–_Kirkham’s Gram._, p. 5. “Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound.”–_Music of Nature_, p. 270. “It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language.”–_Ib._, p. 200. “It is my father’s will that I should take on me the hostess-ship of the day.”–SHAK.: _in Johnson’s Dict._ “To retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht.”–_Phil. Museum._, Vol. i, p. 458. “The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons.”–_Anti-Slavery Mag._, Vol. i, p. 11. “Derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives.”–_Davenport’s Gram._, p. 7. “The minister never was thus harrassed himself.”–_Nelson, on Infidelity_, p. 6. “The most vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment.”–_Ib._, p. 17. “Mistress-ship, _n._ Female rule or dominion.”–_Webster’s Dict._
“Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embrace, The scourge and ruin of my realm and race.” –POPE: _Ash’s Gram._, p. 83.
EXERCISE V.–MIXED ERRORS.
“The quince tree is of a low stature; the branches are diffused and crooked.”–MILLER: _Johnson’s Dict._ “The greater slow worm, called also the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness of his eyes.”–GREW: _ib._ “Oh Hocus! where art thou? It used to go in another guess manner in thy time.”–ARBUTHNOT: _ib._ “One would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation.”–ID.: _ib._ “As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate who’s the greatest plotter.”–DRYDEN: _ib., w. Huff._ “In like manner, Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their Patients.”–_Harris’s Hermes_, p. 263. “These Sentiments are not unusual even with the Philosopher now a days.”–_Ib._, p. 350. “As if the Marble were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble.”–_Ib._, p. 353. “I would not be understood, in what I have said, to undervalue Experiment.”–_Ib._, p. 352. “How therefore is it that they approach nearly to Non-Entity’s?”–_Ib._, p. 431. “Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise, barbarise, tyranise.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, pp. 31 and 42. “Now fair befal thee and thy noble house!”–SHAK.: _ib._, p. 241. “Nor do I think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged,” &c.–_Ash’s Gram._, p. 4. “The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public,” &c.–_Ib._, p. 7. “A Note of Admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression.”–_Ib._, p. 16. “It always has some respect to the power of the agent; and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode.”–_Ib._, p. 29. “Both these are supposed to be synonomous expressions.”–_Ib._, p. 105. “An expence beyond what my circumstances admit.”–DODDRIDGE: _ib._, p. 138. “There are four of them: the _Full-Point_, or _Period_; the _Colon_; the _Semi-Colon_; the _Comma_.”–_Cobbett’s E. Gram._, N. Y., 1818, p. 77. “There are many men, who have been at Latin-Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly.”–_Ib._, p. 39. “But, figures of rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too.”–_Ib._, p. 182. “The horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard.”–MORTIMER: _Johnson’s Dict._ “Whereever _if_ is to be used.”–_O. B. Peirce’s Gram._, p. 175.
“Peel’d, patch’d, and pyebald, linsey-woolsey brothers.” –POPE: _Joh. Dict., w., Mummer_.
“Peel’d, patch’d, and piebald, linsey-woolsey brothers.” –_ID.: ib., w. Piebald_.
EXERCISE VI.–MIXED ERRORS.
“Pied, _adj._ [from _pie._] Variegated; partycoloured.”–_Johnson’s Dict._ “Pie, [_pica_, Lat.] A magpie; a party-coloured bird.”–_Ib._ “Gluy, _adj._ [from _glue._] Viscous; tenacious; glutinous.”–_Ib._ “Gluey, _a._ Viscous, glutinous. Glueyness. _n._ The quality of being gluey.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat[129] upon the muck-hill, returned in all haste, taking it for an ill sign.”–BURTON: _Johnson’s Dict._ “Wars are begun by hairbrained[130] dissolute captains.”–ID.: _ib._ “A carot is a well known garden root.”–_Red Book_, p. 60. “Natural philosophy, metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theology, and politicks, were familiar to him.”–_Kirkham’s Elocution_, p. 209. “The words in Italicks and capitals, are emphatick.”–_Ib._, p. 210. “It is still more exceptionable; Candles, Cherrys, Figs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by Weight, and being Plurals.”–_Johnson’s Gram. Com._, p. 135. “If the End of Grammar be not to save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good for.”–_Ib._, p. 161. “_Caulce_, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular, according to Charisius.”–_Ib._, p. 194. “These busibodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults thereof”–_Perkins’s Works_, p. 741. “I think it every man’s indispensible duty, to do all the service he can to his country.”–_Locke, on Ed._, p. 4. “Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or flaging into a downright want of Appetite.”–_Ib._, p. 23. “And nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast.”–_Ib._, p. 23. “Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and alledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement, enlargement and acknowledgment.”–_Webster’s Dict._, 8vo. “Huckster, _n. s._ One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities; a pedler.”–_Johnson’s Dict._
“He seeks bye-streets, and saves th’ expensive coach.” –GAY: _ib., w. Mortgage._
“He seeks by-streets, and saves th’ expensive coach.” –GAY: _ib., w. By-street._
EXERCISE VII.–MIXED ERRORS.
“Boys like a warm fire in a wintry day.”–_Webster’s El. Spelling-Book_, p. 62. “The lilly is a very pretty flower.”–_Ib._, p. 62. “The potatoe is a native plant of America.”–_Ib._, p. 60. “An anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the English.”–_Ib._, p. 136. “Black berries and raspberries grow on briars.”–_Ib._, p. 150. “You can broil a beef steak over the coals of fire.”–_Ib._, p. 38. “Beef’-steak, _n._ A steak or slice of beef for broiling.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “Beef’steak, _s._ a slice of beef for broiling.”–_Treasury of Knowledge._ “As he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding gain if merchandize rises.”–_Wayland’s Moral Science_, p. 258. “He is the worshipper of an hour, but the worldling for life.”–_Maturin’s Sermons_, p. 424. “Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men.”–_Webster’s Essays_, p. 329. “‘Tis by this therefore that I Define the Verb; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is apply’d to another, as to its Subject.”–_Johnson’s Gram. Com._, p. 255. “It may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety.”–_Kirkham’s Elocution_, p. 178. “To criticize, is to discover errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele.”–_Red Book_, p. 68. “The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is peculiarly aukward; as, he has came.”–_Priestley’s Grammar_, p. 125. “They are moraly responsible for their individual conduct.”–_Cardell’s El. Gram._, p. 21. “An engine of sixty horse power, is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty horses.”–_Red Book_, p. 113. “This, at fourpence per ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a week, or six pounds, one shining and four pence a year.”–_Ib._, p. 122. “The tru meening of _parliament_ iz a meeting of barons or peers.”–_Webster’s Essays_, p. 276. “Several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion.”–_Ib._, p. 277. “That iz, az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word.”–_Ib._, p. 276. “The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons.”–_Ib._, p. 274.
“Falshood is folly, and ’tis just to own The fault committed; this was mine alone.” –_Pope, Odys._, B. xxii, l. 168.
EXERCISE VIII–MIXED ERRORS.
“A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best superfluous.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 332. “Indicate it, by some mark opposite [to] the word misspelt.”–_Abbott’s Teacher_, p. 74. “And succesfully controling the tendencies of mind.”–_Ib._, p. 24. “It [the Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens-Play.”–[LESLIE’S] _Right of Tythes_, p. 236. “It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please those Fools and Knaves.”–_Ib._, Pref., p. vi. “And first I Name Milton, only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Cousider’d his Performance against Tythes.”–_Ib._, p. iv. “His Fancy was too Predominant for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated Reasoning.”–_Ib._, p. iv. “He has thrown away some of his Railery against Tythes, and the Church then underfoot.”–_Ib._, p. v. “They Vey’d with one another in these things.”–_Ib._, p. 220. “Epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the Thebans.”–_Cooper’s New Gram._, p. 27. “_Whoever_ and _Whichever_, are thus declined. Sing. and Plur. _nom._ whoever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whomever. Sing. and Plu. _nom._ whichever, _poss._ whoseever, _obj._ whichever.”–_Ib._, p. 38. “WHEREEVER, _adv._ [_where_ and _ever_.] At whatever place.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “They at length took possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains.”–_Dobson’s Comp. Gram._, p. 7. “Those Britains, who refused to submit to the foreign yoke, retired into Wales.”–_Ib._, p. 6. “Religion is the most chearful thing in the world.”–_Ib._, p. 43. “_Two_ means the number two compleatly, whereas _second_ means only the last of two, and so of all the rest.”–_Ib._, p. 44. “Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose sirname is Peter.”–_Ib._, p. 96. (See _Acts_, x, 5.) “In French words, we use _enter_ instead of _inter_; as, entertain, enterlace, enterprize.”–_Ib._, p. 101. “Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or doubtful meaning.”–_Ib._, p. 103. “Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what! strange!”–_Ib._, p. 109. “Names of the letters: ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi zed.”–_Rev. W. Allen’s Gram._, p. 3.
“I, O, and U, at th’ End of Words require, The silent (e), the same do’s (va) desire.” –_Brightland’s Gram._, p. 15.
EXERCISE IX.–MIXED ERRORS.
“_And_ is written for _eacend_, adding, ekeing.”–_Dr. Murray’s Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 222. “The Hindus have changed _ai_ into _e_, sounded like _e_ in _where_.”–_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 121. “And therefor I would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot.”– _Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 430. “Sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling.”–_Ib._, i, 477. “Possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people.”–_Smollett’s England_, Vol. iii, p. 222. “He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers.”–_Ib._, p. 222. “The high fed astrology which it nurtured, is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac.”–_Cardell’s Gram._, p. 6. “Fulton was an eminent engineer: he invented steam boats.”–_Ib._, p. 30. “Then, in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine of goodwill.”–SOUTH: _in Johnson’s Dict._ “Being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace.”–SPECTATOR: _ib._ “Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father.”–BACON: _ib., w. Lowness_. “The children will answer; John’s, or William’s, or whose ever it may be.”–_Infant School Gram._, p. 32. “It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess work.”–_Cardell’s Gram._, p. 91. “For between which two links could speech makers draw the division line?”–_Ib._, p. 50. “The wonderful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head.”–_Ib._, p. 56. “The brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine.”–_Ib._, p. 63. “A word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 23; _Coar’s_, 17; _Jaudon’s_, 13; _Comly’s_, 8; _Cooper’s, New Gr._, 8; _Kirkham’s_, 20; _Picket’s_, 10; _Alger’s_, 12; _Blair’s_, 1; _Guy’s_, 2; _Bolles’s Spelling-Book_, 161. See _Johnson’s Dict._ “A word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable.”–_British Gram._, p. 33; _Comprehensive Gram._, 23; _Bicknell’s_, 17; _Allen’s_, 31; _John Peirce’s_, 149; _Lennie’s_, 5; _Maltby’s_, 8; _Ingersoll’s_, 7; _Bradley’s_, 66; _Davenport’s_, 7; _Bucke’s_, 16; _Bolles’s Spelling-Book_, 91. See _Littleton’s Lat. Dict._ (1.) “_Will_, in the first Persons, promises or threatens: But in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells.”–_British Gram._, p. 132. (2.) “_Will_, in the first Persons, promises or threatens; but in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells.”–_Buchanan’s Gram._, p. 41. (3.) “_Will_, in the first person, promises, engages, or threatens. In the second and third persons, it merely foretels.”–_Jaudon’s Gram._, p. 59. (4.) “_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretells.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 41. (5.) “_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third person, only foretels.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 88; _Ingersoll’s_, 136; _Fisk’s_, 78; _A. Flint’s_, 42; _Bullions’s_, 32; _Hamlin’s_, 41; _Cooper’s Murray_, 50. [Fist] _Murray’s Second Edition_ has it “_foretells_.” (6.) “_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only foretells.”–_Comly’s Gram._, p. 38; _E. Devis’s_, 51; _Lennie’s_, 22. (7.) “_Will_, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it simply foretels.”–_Maltby’s Gram._, p. 24. (8.) “_Will_, in the first person implies resolution and promising; in the second and third, it foretells.”–_Cooper’s New Gram._, p. 51. (9.) “_Will_, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretels: _shall_, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens.”–_Adam’s Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 83. (10.) “In the first person shall _foretels_, and will _promises_ or _threatens_; but in the second and third persons _will_ foretels, and _shall_ promises or threatens.”–_Blair’s Gram._, p. 65.
“If Maevius scribble in Apollo’s spight, There are who judge still worse than he can write.”–_Pope_.
EXERCISE X.–MIXED ERRORS.
“I am liable to be charged that I latinize too much.”–DRYDEN: in _Johnson’s Dict._ “To mould him platonically to his own idea.”–WOTTON: _ib._ “I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as Zobeide.”–_Murray’s E. Reader_, p. 148. “I will marry a wife, beautiful as the Houries.”–_Wilcox’s Gram._, p. 65. “The words in italics are all in the imperative mood.”–_Maltby’s Gram._, p. 71. “Words Italicised, are emphatick, in various degrees.”–_Kirkham’s Elocution_, p. 173. “Wherever two gg’s come together, they are both hard.”–_Buchanan’s Gram._, p. 5. “But these are rather silent (_o_)’s than obscure (_u_)’s.”–_Brightland’s Gram._, p. 19. “That can be Guest at by us, only from the Consequences.”–_Right of Tythes_, p. viii. “He says he was glad that he had Baptized so few; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of Paul?”–_Ib._, p. ix. “Therefor he Charg’d the Clergy with the Name of Hirelings.”–_Ib._, p. viii. “On the fourth day before the first second day in each month.”–_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 230. “We are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which were established by our ancestors.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 140. “O! learn from him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm.”–_Frosts El. of Gram._, p. 104. “It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village.”–_Music of Nature_, p. 421. “By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner.”–_Booth’s Introd. to Dict._, p. 33. “Time as an abstract being is a non-entity.”–_Ib._, p. 29. “From the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combinations of words.”–_Ib._, p. 19. “Drop those letters that are superfluous, as: handful, foretel.”–_Cooper’s Plain & Pract. Gram._, p. 10. “_Shall_, in the first person, simply foretells.”–_Ib._, p. 51. “And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with the act.”–_Ib._, p. 60. “The man has been traveling for five years.”–_Ib._, p. 77. “I shall not take up time in combatting their scruples.”–_Blair’s Rhet._, p. 320. “In several of the chorusses of Euripides and Sophocles, we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in Pindar.”–_Ib._, p. 398. “Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their efforts in _forming_ the human mind, rather than in loping its excressences, after it has been neglected.”–_Webster’s Essays_, p. 26. “Where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in error.”–_Ib._, p. 78. “All the barons were entitled to a seet in the national council, in right of their baronys.”–_Ib._, p. 260. “Some knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady.”–_Ib._, p. 29. “Upon this, [the system of chivalry,] were founded those romances of night-errantry.”–_Blair’s Rhet._, p. 374. “The subject is, the atchievements of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins.”–_Ib._, p. 374. “Aye, aye; this slice to be sure outweighs the other.”–_Blair’s Reader_, p. 31. “In the common phrase, _good-bye, bye_ signifies _passing, going_. The phrase signifies, a good going, a prosperous passage, and is equivalent to _farewell_.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “Good-by, _adv_.–a contraction of _good be with you_–a familiar way of bidding farewell.”–See _Chalmers’s Dict._ “Off he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you.”–_Blair’s Reader_, p. 16. “It no longer recals the notion of the action.”–_Barnard’s Gram._, p. 69.
“Good-nature and good-sense must ever join; To err, is human; to forgive, divine.”–_Pope, Ess. on Crit._
EXERCISE XI.–MIXED ERRORS.
“The practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing, sawing, mortising, scribing, moulding, &c.”–_Blair’s Reader_, p. 118. “With her left hand, she guides the thread round the spindle, or rather round a spole which goes on the spindle.”–_Ib._, p. 134. “Much suff’ring heroes next their honours claim.”–POPE: _Johnson’s Dict., w. Much_. “Vein healing verven, and head purging dill.”–SPENSER: _ib., w. Head_. “An, in old English, signifies _if_; as, ‘_an_ it please your honor.'”–_Webster’s Dict._ “What, then, was the moral worth of these renouned leaders?”–_M’Ilvaine’s Lect._, p. 460. “Behold how every form of human misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent.”–_Ib._, p. 411. “Reptiles, bats, and doleful creatures–jackalls, hyenas, and lions–inhabit the holes, and caverns, and marshes of the desolate city.”–_Ib._, p. 270. “ADAYS, _adv_. On or in days; as, in the phrase, now _adays_.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “REFEREE, one to whom a thing is referred; TRANSFERREE, the person to whom a transfer is made.”–_Ib._ “The Hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims.”–_Ib._ “GERARD, Tom, or Tung, was the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers: he died in 1120.”–_Biog. Dict._ “I had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land.”–SHAK.: _in Johnson’s Dict._ “He turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his servants.”–_Psalms_, cv, 25. “In Dryden’s ode of Alexander’s Feast, the line, ‘_Faln, faln, faln, faln_,’ represents a gradual sinking of the mind.”–_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 71. “The first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical.”–_Jamieson’s Rhet._, p. 117. “We have the nicely chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble still.”–_Christian Spect._, Vol. viii, p. 201. “Death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all.”–_Bucke’s Gram._, p. 35. “Fear God. Honor the patriot. Respect virtue.”–_Kirkham’s Gram._, p. 216. “Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee.”–_Ib._, p. 189. See _Luke_, iii, 1. “AUCTIONEER, _n. s_. The person that manages an auction.”–_Johnson’s Dict._ “The earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes, to behold him.”–HOWEL: _ib._ “_Musselman_, not being a compound of _man_, is _musselmans_ in the plural.”–_Lennie’s Gram._, p. 9. “The absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar rules.”–_Burgh’s Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 147. “John was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder.”–ARBUTHNOT: _Joh. Dict._ “To set the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows projecting outward.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “We almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun.”–_Maunder’s Gram._, p. 2. “This is all souls day, fellows! Is it not?”–SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ “The english physicians make use of troy-weight.”–_Johnson’s Dict._ “There is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls.”–PEACHAM: _ib., w. Marquis_.
“How could you chide the young good natur’d prince, And drive him from you with so stern an air.” –ADDISON: _ib., w. Good_, 25.
EXERCISE XII.–MIXED ERRORS.
“In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided.”–_Sanborn’s Gram._, p. 75. “If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb.”–_Ib._, p. 53. “The preterite of _read_ is pronounced _red_.”–_Ib._, p. 48. “Humility opens a high way to dignity.”–_Ib._, p. 15. “What is intricate must be unraveled.”–_Ib._, p. 275. “Roger Bacon invented gun powder, A. D. 1280.”–_Ib._, p. 277. “On which ever word we lay the emphasis.”–_Murray’s Gram._, 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. “Each of the leaders was apprized of the Roman invasion.”–_Nixon’s Parser_, p. 123. “If I say, ‘I _gallopped_ from Islington to Holloway;’ the verb is intransitive: if, ‘I _gallopped_ my _horse_ from Islington to Holloway;’ it is transitive.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 238. “The reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven.”–_The Friend_, Vol. iv, p. 240. “The promoters of paper money making reprobated this act.”–_Webster’s Essays_, p. 196. “There are five compound personal pronouns, which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable _self_; as, my-self, thy-self, him-self, her-self, it-self.”–_Perley’s Gram._, p. 16. “Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own, her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own.”–_Ib., Declensions_. “Thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou.”–_Sanborn’s Gram._, p. 160. “How many right angles has an acute angled triangle?”–_Ib._, p. 220. “In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha.”–_Ib._, p. 148. “In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, Elisha, the prophet flourished.”–_Ib._, p. 133. “Lodgable, _a_. Capable of affording a temporary abode.”–_Webster’s Octavo Dict._–“Win me into the easy hearted man.”–_Johnson’s Quarto Dict._ “And then to end life, is the same as to dye.”–_Milnes’s Greek Gram._, p. 176. “Those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood.”–SOUTH: _Joh. Dict._ “His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate.”–_Nixon’s Parser_, p. 91. “This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent.”–_Campbell’s Rhet._, p. 117. “When he comes to the Italicised word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require.”–_Claggett’s Expositor_, p. vii. “Learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion.”–_Adams’s Rhetoric_, Vol. i, p. 31. “To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the Americans.”–_Ib._, ii, 300. “Where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency.”–_Ib._, i, 31. “The uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory.”–_Ib._, i, 100. “The Brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator.”–_Ib._, i, 120. “The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium.”–_Ib._, i, 130. “You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage.”–_Ib._, i, 169. “In this lecture, you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize.”–_Ib._, i, 182. “He would have been stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was traveling out of the record.”–_Ib._, i, 289. “To tell them that which should befal them in the last days.”–_Ib._, ii, 308. “Where all is present, there is nothing past to recal.”–_Ib._, ii, 358. “Whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of God’s eternal vengeance.”–_Law and Grace_, p. 36.
“There, from the dead, centurions see him rise, See, but struck down with horrible surprize!”–_Savage_.
“With seed of woes my heart brimful is charged.”–SIDNEY: _Joh. Dict._
“Our legions are brimful, our cause is ripe.”–SHAKSPEARE: _ib._
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications.
The _Parts of Speech_ are the several kinds, or principal classes, into which words are divided by grammarians.
_Classes_, under the parts of speech, are the particular sorts into which the several kinds of words are subdivided.
_Modifications_ are inflections, or changes, in the terminations, forms, or senses, of some kinds of words.
CHAPTER I.–PARTS OF SPEECH.
The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection.
1. THE ARTICLE.
An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_ ship.
2. THE NOUN.
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, _George, York, man, apple, truth_.
3. THE ADJECTIVE.
An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A _wise_ man; a _new_ book. You _two_ are _diligent_.
4. THE PRONOUN.
A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well.
5. THE VERB.
A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_: as, I _am_, I _rule_, I _am ruled_; I _love_, thou _lovest_, he _loves_.
6. THE PARTICIPLE.
A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb: thus, from the verb _rule_, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. _ruling_, 2. _ruled_, 3. _having ruled_.
7. THE ADVERB.
An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_.
8. THE CONJUNCTION.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, “Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good.”–_L. Murray_.
9. THE PREPOSITION.
A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun; as, The paper lies _before_ me _on_ the desk.
10. THE INTERJECTION.
An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, _Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!_
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.–The first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part of grammar, is the distribution of the words of the language into those principal sorts, or classes, which are denominated _the Parts of Speech_. This is a matter of some difficulty. And as no scheme which can be adopted, will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally falter in its application, the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to refer his pupils to the following simple explanations, which are designed to aid their first and most difficult steps.
How can we know to what class, or part of speech, any word belongs? By learning the definitions of the ten parts of speech, and then observing how the word is written, and in what sense it is used. It is necessary also to observe, so far as we can, with what other words each particular one is capable of making sense.
1. Is it easy to distinguish an ARTICLE? If not always easy, it is generally so: _the, an_, and _a_, are the only English words called articles, and these are rarely any thing else. Because _an_ and _a_ have the same import, and are supposed to have the same origin, the articles are commonly reckoned two, but some count them as three.
2. How can we distinguish a NOUN? By means of the article before it, if there is one; as, _the house, an apple, a book_; or, by adding it to the phrase, “_I mentioned_;” as, “I mentioned _peace_;”–“I mentioned _war_;”–“I mentioned _slumber_.” Any word which thus makes complete sense, is, in that sense, a noun; because a noun is the _name_ of any thing which can thus be mentioned _by a name_. Of English nouns, there are said to be as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand.
3. How can we distinguish an ADJECTIVE? By putting a noun after it, to see if the phrase will be sense. The noun _thing_, or its plural _things_, will suit almost any adjective; as, A _good_ thing–A _bad_ thing–A _little_ thing–A _great_ thing–_Few_ things–_Many_ things–_Some_ things–_Fifty_ things. Of adjectives, there are perhaps nine or ten thousand.
4. How can we distinguish a PRONOUN? By observing that its noun repeated makes the same sense. Thus, the example of the pronoun above, “The boy loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well,”–very clearly means, “The boy loves _the boy’s_ book; _the boy_ has long lessons, and _the boy_ learns _those lessons_ well.” Here then, by a disagreeable repetition of two nouns, we have the same sense without any pronoun; but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of expression, because they prevent this awkward repetition. The different pronouns in English are twenty-four; and their variations in declension are thirty-two: so that the number of _words_ of this class, is fifty-six.
5. How can we distinguish a VERB? By observing that it is usually the principal word in the sentence, and that without it there would be no assertion. It is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the person or thing mentioned; as, “Jesus _wept_.”–“Felix _trembled_.”–“The just _shall live_ by faith.” It will make sense when inflected with the pronouns; as, I _write_, thou _writ’st_, he _writes_; we _write_, you _write_, they _write_.–I _walk_, thou _walkst_, he _walks_; we _walk_, you _walk_, they _walk_. Of English verbs, some recent grammarians compute the number at eight thousand; others formerly reckoned them to be no more than four thousand three hundred.[131]
6. How can we distinguish a PARTICIPLE? By observing its derivation from the verb, and then placing it after _to be_ or _having_; as, To be _writing_, Having _written_–To be _walking_, Having _walked_–To be _weeping_, Having _wept_–To be _studying_, Having _studied_. Of simple participles, there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical verbs; and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples, but they are much less frequently used.
7. How can we distinguish an ADVERB? By observing that it answers to the question, _When? Where? How much?_ or _How_?–or serves to ask it; as, “He spoke fluently.” _How_ did he speak? _Fluently_. This word _fluently_ is therefore an adverb: it tells _how_ he spoke. Of adverbs, there are about two thousand six hundred; and four fifths of them end in _ly_.
8. How can we distinguish a CONJUNCTION? By observing what words or terms it joins together, or to what other conjunction it corresponds; as, “_Neither_ wealth _nor_ honor can heal a wounded conscience.”–_Dillwyn’s Ref._, p. 16. Or, it may be well to learn the whole list at once: _And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so: Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas._ Of conjunctions, there are these twenty-nine in common use, and a few others now obsolete.
9. How can we distinguish a PREPOSITION? By observing that it will govern the pronoun _them_, and is not a verb or a participle; as, _About_ them–_above_ them–_across_ them–_after_ them–_against_ them–_amidst_ them–_among_ them–_around_ them–_at_ them–_Before_ them–_behind_ them–_below_ them–_beneath_ them–_beside_ them–_between_ them–_beyond_ them–_by_ them–_For_ them–_from_ them–_In_ them–_into_ them, &c. Of the prepositions, there are about sixty now in common use.
10. How can we distinguish an INTERJECTION? By observing that it is an independent word or sound, uttered earnestly, and very often written with the note of exclamation; as _Lo! behold! look! see! hark! hush! hist! mum!_ Of interjections, there are sixty or seventy in common use, some of which are seldom found in books.
OBS. 2.–An accurate knowledge of words, and of their changes, is indispensable to a clear discernment of their proper combinations in sentences, according to the usage of the learned. Etymology, therefore, should be taught before syntax; but it should be chiefly taught by a direct analysis of entire sentences, and those so plainly written that the particular effect of every word may be clearly distinguished, and the meaning, whether intrinsic or relative, be discovered with precision. The parts of speech are usually named and defined with reference to the use of words _in sentences_; and, as the same word not unfrequently stands for several different parts of speech, the learner should be early taught to make for himself the proper application of the foregoing distribution, without recurrence to a dictionary, and without aid from his teacher. He who is endeavouring to acquaint himself with the grammar of a language which he can already read and understand, is placed in circumstances very different from those which attend the school-boy who is just beginning to construe some sentences of a foreign tongue. A frequent use of the dictionary may facilitate the progress of the one, while it delays that of the other. English grammar, it is hoped, may be learned directly from this book alone, with better success than can be expected when the attention of the learner is divided among several or many different works.
OBS. 3.–Dr. James P. Wilson, in speaking of the classification of words, observes, “The _names_ of the distributive parts should either express, distinctly, the influence, which each class produces on sentences; or some other characteristic trait, by which the respective species of words may be distinguished, without danger of confusion. It is at least probable, that no distribution, sufficiently minute, can ever be made, of the parts of speech, which shall be wholly free from all objection. Hasty innovations, therefore, and crude conjectures, should not be permitted to disturb that course of grammatical instruction, which has been advancing in melioration, by the unremitting labours of thousands, through a series of ages.”–_Wilson’s Essay on Gram._, p. 66. Again: “The _number_ of the parts of speech may be reduced, or enlarged, at pleasure; and the rules of syntax may be accommodated to such new arrangement. The best grammarians find it difficult, in practice, to distinguish, in some instances, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; yet their effects are generally distinct. This inconvenience should be submitted to, since a less comprehensive distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the meaning of English sentences.”–_Ib._, p. 68. Again: “_As_ and _so_ have been also deemed substitutes, and resolved into other words. But if all abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech, there will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar; and the various improvements, which have sprung from convenience, or necessity, and been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times, must be retrenched, and anarchy in letters universally prevail.”–_Ib._, p. 114.
OBS. 4.–I have elsewhere sufficiently shown why _ten_ parts of speech are to be preferred to any other number, in English; and whatever diversity of opinion there may be, respecting the class to which some particular words ought to be referred, I trust to make it obvious to good sense, that I have seldom erred from the course which is most expedient. 1. _Articles_ are used with appellative nouns, sometimes to denote emphatically the species, but generally to designate individuals. 2. _Nouns_ stand in discourse for persons, things, or abstract qualities. 3. _Adjectives_ commonly express the concrete qualities of persons or things; but sometimes, their situation or number. 4. _Pronouns_ are substitutes for names, or nouns; but they sometimes represent sentences. 5. _Verbs_ assert, ask, or say something; and, for the most part, express action or motion. 6. _Participles_ contain the essential meaning of their verbs, and commonly denote action, and imply time; but, apart from auxiliaries, they express that meaning either adjectively or substantively, and not with assertion. 7. _Adverbs_ express the circumstances of time, of place, of degree, and of manner; the _when_, the _where_, the _how much_, and the _how_. 8. _Conjunctions_ connect, sometimes words, and sometimes sentences, rarely phrases; and always show, either the manner in which one sentence or one phrase depends upon an other, or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third. 9. _Prepositions_ express the correspondent relations of things to things, of thoughts to thoughts, or of words to words; for these, if we speak truly, must be all the same in expression. 10. _Interjections_ are either natural sounds or exclamatory words, used independently, and serving briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker.
OBS. 5.–In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified, and each is pointed out by the figure placed over the word:–
1 2 9 2 5 1 2 3 9 2 1 2 6 “The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; a faculty bestowed 9 4 9 4 3 2 9 1 3 8 7 3 on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excellent 2 8 10 7 7 5 4 5 4 9 1 3 9
uses; but, alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst of 2
purposes!”–See _Lowth’s Gram._, p. 1.
In this sentence, which has been adopted by Murray, Churchill, and others, we have the following parts of speech: 1. The words _the, a_, and _an_, are articles. 2. The words _power, speech, faculty, man, faculty, Creator, uses_, and _purposes_, are nouns. 3. The words _peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent_, and _worst_, are adjectives. 4. The words _him, his, we_, and _it_, are pronouns. 5. The words _is, do_, and _pervert_, are verbs. 6. The word _bestowed_ is a participle. 7. The words _most, how_, and _often_, are adverbs. 8. The words _and_ and _but_ are conjunctions. 9. The words _of, on, to, by, for, to_, and _of_, are prepositions. 10. The word _alas!_ is an interjection.
OBS. 6.–In speaking or writing, we of course bring together the different parts of speech just as they happen to be needed. Though a sentence of ordinary length usually embraces more than one half of them, it is not often that we find them _all_ in so small a compass. Sentences sometimes abound in words of a particular kind, and are quite destitute of those of some other sort. The following examples will illustrate these remarks. (1) ARTICLES: “_A_ square is less beautiful than _a_ circle; and _the_ reason seems to be, that _the_ attention is divided among _the_ sides and angles of _a_ square, whereas _the_ circumference of _a_ circle, being _a_ single object, makes one entire impression.”–_Kames, Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 175. (2.) NOUNS: “A _number_ of _things_ destined for the same _use_, such as _windows, chairs, spoons, buttons_, cannot be too uniform; for, supposing their _figure_ to be good, _utility_ requires _uniformity_.”–_Ib._, i, 176. (3.) ADJECTIVES: “Hence nothing _just, proper, decent, beautiful, proportioned_, or _grand_, is _risible_.”–_Ib._, i, 229. (4.) PRONOUNS: “_I_ must entreat the courteous reader to suspend _his_ curiosity, and rather to consider _what_ is written than _who they_ are _that_ write it.”–_Addison, Spect._, No. 556. (5.) VERBS: “The least consideration _will inform_ us how easy it _is_ to _put_ an ill-natured construction upon a word; and what perverse turns and expressions _spring_ from an evil temper. Nothing _can be explained_ to him who _will_ not _understand_, nor _will_ any thing _appear_ right to the unreasonable.”–_Cecil_. (6.) PARTICIPLES: “The Scriptures are an authoritative voice, _reproving, instructing_, and _warning_ the world; and _declaring_ the only means _ordained_ and _provided for escaping_ the awful penalties of sin.”–_G. B._ (7.) ADVERBS: “The light of Scripture shines _steadily, purely, benignly, certainly, superlatively_.”–_Dr. S. H. Cox._ (8.) CONJUNCTIONS: “Quietness and silence _both_ become _and_ befriend religious exercises. Clamour _and_ violence often hinder, _but_ never further, the work of God.”–_Henry’s Exposition._ (9.) PREPOSITIONS: “He has kept _among us_, in times of peace, standing armies, _without_ the consent of our legislatures.”–_Dec. of Indep._ (10.) INTERJECTIONS: “_Oh_, my dear strong-box! _Oh_, my lost guineas! _Oh_, poor, ruined, beggared old man! _Boo! hoo! hoo!_”–MOLIERE: _Burgh’s Art of Speaking_, p. 266.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
_Parsing_ is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related word or words, according to the definitions and rules of grammar. Parsing is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic.
A _Praxis_ is a method of exercise, or a form of grammatical resolution, showing the learner how to proceed. The word is Greek, and literally signifies action, doing, practice, or formal use.
PRAXIS I–ETYMOLOGICAL.
_In the first Praxis, it is required of the pupil–merely to distinguish and define the different parts of speech.
The definitions to be given in the First Praxis, are one, and only one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus_:–
EXAMPLE PARSED.
“The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him.”
_The_ is an article. 1.[132] An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Patient_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.
_Ox_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_Submits_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon._
_To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Yoke_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.
_Meekly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.
_Performs_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon._
_The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Labour_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_Required_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb.
_Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_Him_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
LESSON I.–PARSING.
“A nimble tongue often trips. The rule of the tongue is a great attainment. The language of truth is direct and plain. Truth is never evasive. Flattery is the food of vanity. A virtuous mind loathes flattery. Vain persons are an easy prey to parasites. Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. The smiles of the world are deceitful. True friendship hath eternal views. A faithful friend is invaluable. Constancy in friendship denotes a generous mind. Adversity is the criterion of friendship. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Few know the value of a friend till they lose him. Justice is the first of all moral virtues. Let justice hold, and mercy turn, the scale. A judge is guilty who connives at guilt. Justice delayed is little better than justice denied. Vice is the deformity of man. Virtue is a source of constant cheerfulness. One vice is more expensive than many virtues. Wisdom, though serious, is never sullen. Youth is the season of improvement.”–_Dillwyn’s Reflections_, pp. 4-27.
“Oh! my ill-chang’d condition! oh, my fate! Did I lose heaven for this?”–_Cowley’s Davideis._
LESSON II.–PARSING.
“So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature is more timid than man; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime; for a common reproach is no reproach. A man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is a blessing from heaven: the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first step towards vice, is to make a mystery of what is innocent: whoever loves to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato.”–Home’s Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53.
“O thou most high transcendent gift of age! Youth from its folly thus to disengage.”–_Denham’s Age_.
LESSON III.–PARSING.
“Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it.”–_Murray’s Ex._, p. 5. “Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little for the future.”–See _ib._ “Still waters are commonly deepest. He laboured to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid.”–_Ib._ “Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.”–_Ib._ “The hail was very destructive. Hail, virtue! source of every good. We hail you as friends.”–_Ib._, p. 6. “Much money makes no man happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world.”–See _ib._ “Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company.”–_Ib._ “Give me more love, or more disdain.”–_Carew_. “He loved Rachel more than Leah.”–_Genesis_. “But how much that more is; he hath no distinct notion.”–_Locke_.
“And my more having would be as a sauce To make me hunger more.”–_Shakspeare_.
CHAPTER II.–ARTICLES.
An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_ ship.
_An_ and _a_, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned _one and the same_ article. _An_ is used in preference to _a_, whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, _An_ art, _an_ end, _an_ heir, _an_ inch, _an_ ounce, _an_ hour, _an_ urn. _A_ is used in preference to _an_, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, _A_ man, _a_ house, _a_ wonder, _a_ one, _a_ yew, _a_ use, _a_ ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of _w_ and _y_, even when expressed by other letters, require _a_ and not _an_ before them.
A common noun, when taken in its _widest sense_, usually admits no article: as, “A candid temper is proper for _man_; that is, for _all mankind_.”–_Murray_.
In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a sense _indefinitely partitive_: as, “He took _bread_, and gave thanks.”–_Acts_. That is, “_some bread_.” “To buy _food_ are thy servants come.”–_Genesis_. That is, “_some food_.” “There are _fishes_ that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region.”–_Locke’s Essay_, p. 322. That is, “_some fishes_.”
“Words in which nothing but the _mere being_ of any thing is implied, are used without articles: as, ‘This is not _beer_, but _water_;’ ‘This is not _brass_, but _steel_.'”–See _Dr. Johnson’s Gram._, p. 5.
_An_ or _a_ before the genus, may refer to _a whole species_; and _the_ before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as, “_A certain bird_ is termed _the cuckoo_, from _the sound_ which it emits.”–_Blair_.
But _an_ or _a_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _unknown_, or as not specially distinguished from others: as, “I see _an object_ pass by, which I never saw till now; and I say, ‘There goes _a beggar_ with _a long beard_.'”–_Harris_.
And _the_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _known_, or as specially distinguished from others: as, “_The man_ departs, and returns a week after; and I say, ‘There goes _the beggar_ with _the long beard_.'”–_Id._
The article _the_ is applied to nouns of cither number: as, “_The_ man, _the_ men;” “_The_ good boy, _the_ good boys.”
_The_ is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns: as, “_The young_ are slaves to novelty; _the old_, to custom.”–_Ld. Kames._
The article _an_ or _a_ implies _unity_, or _one_, and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only; as, _A_ man,–_An_ old man,–_A_ good boy.
_An_ or _a_, like _one_, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number, when the noun following is plural; as, _A few days,–A hundred men,–One hundred pounds sterling_.
Articles should be _inserted_ as often as the sense requires them; as, “Repeat the preterit and [_the_] perfect participle of the verb _to abide_.”–Error in _Merchant’s American School Grammar_, p. 66.
_Needless articles_ should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense: as, “_The_ Rhine, _the_ Danube, _the_ Tanais, _the_ Po, _the_ Wolga, _the_ Ganges, like many hundreds of similar _names_, rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect.”–Error in _Dr. Murray’s Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 327.
The articles can seldom be put _one for the other_, without gross impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense: as, “_The_ violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease _a_ reader.”–Error in _Blair’s Lectures_, p. 107. Say, “_A_ violation of this rule never fails to displease _the_ reader.”
CLASSES.
The articles are distinguished as the _definite_ and the _indefinite_.
I. The _definite article_ is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things; as, _The_ boy, _the_ oranges.
II. The _indefinite article_ is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one; as, _A_ boy, _an_ orange.
MODIFICATIONS.[133]
The English articles have no modifications, except that _an_ is shortened into _a_ before the sound of a consonant; as, “In _an_ epic poem, or _a_ poem upon _an_ elevated subject, _a_ writer ought to avoid raising _a_ simile on _a_ low image.”–_Ld. Kames._
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.–No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied; none, oftener omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate both their _uses_ and their _abuses_; with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax.
OBS. 2.–With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle, Wells,[134] Weld, Butler Frazee, Perley, Mulligan, Pinneo, S. S. Greene, and other writers, to _degrade_ the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject, can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an “_adjective_,” as they would have it to be; but it is a word of a peculiar sort–a _customary index_ to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the extent of signification, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun. There is just as much reason to deny and degrade the Greek or French article, (or that of any other language,) as the English; and, if those who are so zealous to reform our _the, an_, and _a_ into _adjectives_, cared at all to appear consistent in the view of Comparative or General Grammar, they would either set about a wider reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this.
OBS. 3.–First let it be understood, that _an_ or _a_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective _one_, but less emphatic; and that _the_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective _that_ or _those_, but less emphatic. On _some_ occasions, these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles; but _not generally_. If the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally _like_ them, they would _be_ adjectives; but, that adjectives may occasionally supply their places, is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that _a, an_, and _the_, do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble, is shown even by some who judge “the distinctive name of _article_ to be useless.” See _Crombie’s Treatise_, Chap. 2. The articles therefore must be distinguished, not only from adjectives, but from each other. For, though both are _articles_, each is an index _sui generis_; the one definite, the other indefinite. And as the words _that_ and _one_ cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable. To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one _meaning_ for an other: “_A_ daughter of _a_ poor man”–“_The_ daughter of _the_ poor man”–“_A_ daughter of _the_ poor man”–and, “_The_ daughter of _a_ poor man,” are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations. This difference between the two articles may be further illustrated by the following example: “That Jesus was _a_ prophet sent from God, is one proposition; that Jesus was _the_ prophet, _the_ Messiah, is an other; and, though he certainly was both _a_ prophet and _the_ prophet, yet _the_ foundations of _the_ proof of these propositions are separate and distinct.”–_Watson’s Apology_, p. 105.
OBS. 4.–Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual, the several objects thus arranged under one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun, expressive of plurality; as, _horse, horses_. Proper nouns in their ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular individuals; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an individual person or thing as distinguished from all others, so there is in general none to this class of nouns; and no room for _further restriction by articles_. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual signification, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form; as, “I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding whether I had it from _an Aristotle_ or _a Zoilus, a Newton_ or _a Descartes_.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, Pref., p. 8. “It is not enough to have _Vitruviuses_, we must also have _Augustuses_ to employ them.”–_Bicknell’s Gram._, Part ii, p. 61.
“_A Daniel_ come to judgment! yea, _a Daniel_!” –SHAK. _Shylock_.
“Great Homer, in _th’ Achilles_, whom he drew, Sets not that one sole Person in our View.” –_Brightland’s Gram._, p. 183.
OBS. 5.–The article _an_ or _a_ usually denotes one out of several or many; one of a sort of which there are more; any one of that name, no matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is _directly the reverse_ of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies and fixes the meaning of both; but while it restricts that of the latter, it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class: as, “_A man_;” that is, “_One man_, or _any man_.” On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others to whom it will apply: as, “_A Nero_;” that is, “_Any Nero_, or _any cruel tyrant_.” Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to leave the idea still particular; but, if it really does so, the propriety of using it may be doubted: as, “No, not by _a John the Baptist_ risen from the dead.”–_Henry’s Expos., Mark_, vi. “It was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of _a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero_, or _a Caracalla_, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so universal.”–_M’Ilvaine’s Evid._, p. 398.
OBS. 6.–With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes specifically, sometimes individually, but always _definitely_, always distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the particular individual, or the particular species,–or, (if the noun be plural,) some particular individuals of the species,–as being distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned; sometimes presumes upon the hearer’s familiarity with the thing; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this article, that with it the singular number of the noun is often more comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus, if I say, “_The horse_ is a noble animal,” without otherwise intimating that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively _that species_ of animal; and I shall be thought to mean, “Horses are noble animals.” But if I say, “_The horses_ are noble animals,” I use an expression so much more limited, as to include only a few; it must mean some particular horses, which I distinguish from all the rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is occasion for them; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and ought to be avoided; because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be, if also specific. Lindley Murray, though not uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it necessary to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the singular; as, “That _the learners_ may have no doubts.”–_Murray’s Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 81. “The business will not be tedious to _the scholars_.”–_Ib._, 81. “For the information of _the learners_.”–_Ib._, 81. “It may afford instruction to _the learners_.”–_Ib._, 110. “That this is the case, _the learners_ will perceive by the following examples.”–_Ib._, 326. “Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to _the scholars_.”–_Ib._, 335.
OBS. 7.–Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always preceded by the definite article; as, “_The Wesleys_,”–“_The twelve Caesars_,”–“_All the Howards_.” So the names of particular nations, tribes, and sects; as, _The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics_. Likewise the plural names of mountains; as, _The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Andes_. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names, they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and accordingly they are always written with capitals; but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper.
“_Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson_, in council great, And _Jay_, and _Laurens_ oped the rolls of fate; _The Livingstons_, fair freedoms generous band, _The Lees, the Houstons_, fathers of the land.”–_Barlow_.
OBS. 8.–In prose, the definite article is always used before names of rivers, unless the word _river_, be added; as, _The Delaware, the Hudson, the Connecticut_. But if the word _river_ be added, the article becomes needless; as, _Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river_. Yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both; as, _The Delaware river, the Hudson river, the Connecticut river_. And if the common noun be placed before the proper name, the article is again necessary; as, _The river Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut_. In the first form of expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name; but these examples, and others of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, “_The_ [river] _Potomac_”–“_The_ [ship] _Constitution_,”–“_The_ [steamboat] _Fulton_.” Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative. But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some names of rivers could not be understood; as,
“No more _the Varus_ and _the Atax_ feel The lordly burden of the Latian keel.”–_Rowe’s Lucan_, B. i. l. 722.
OBS. 9.–The definite article is often used by way of eminence, to distinguish some particular individual emphatically, or to apply to him some characteristic name or quality: as, “_The Stagirite_,”–that is, Aristotle; “_The Psalmist_,” that is, David; “_Alexander the Great_,”–that is, (perhaps,) Alexander the Great _Monarch_, or Great _Hero_. So, sometimes, when the phrase relates to a collective body of men: as, “_The Honourable, the Legislature_,”–“_The Honourable, the Senate_;”–that is, “The Honourable _Body_, the Legislature,” &c. A similar application of the article in the following sentences, makes a most beautiful and expressive form of compliment: “These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttleton, _the friend_.”–_Thomson_. “The pride of swains Palemon was, _the generous_ and _the rich_.”–_Id._ In this last example, the noun _man_ is understood after “_generous_,” and again after “_rich_;” for, the article being an index to the noun, I conceive it to be improper ever to construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word. Dr. Priestley says, “We sometimes _repeat the article_, when the epithet precedes the substantive; as He was met by _the_ worshipful _the_ magistrates.”–_Gram._, p. 148. It is true, we occasionally meet with such fulsome phraseology as this; but the question is, how is it to be explained? I imagine that the word _personages_, or something equivalent, must be understood after _worshipful_, and that the Doctor ought to have inserted a comma there.
OBS. 10.–In Greek, there is no article corresponding to our _an_ or _a_, consequently _man_ and _a man_ are rendered alike; the word, [Greek: anthropos] may mean either. See, in the original, these texts: “There was _a man_ sent from God,” (_John_, i, 6,) and, “What is _man_, that thou art mindful of him?”–_Heb._, ii, 6. So of other nouns. But the _definite_ article of that language, which is exactly equivalent to our _the_, is a declinable word, making no small figure in grammar. It is varied by numbers, genders, and cases; so that it assumes more than twenty different forms, and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of _agreement_. But this article in English is perfectly simple, being entirely destitute of grammatical modifications, and consequently incapable of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement–a circumstance of which many of our grammarians seem to be ignorant; since they prescribe a rule, wherein they say, it “_agrees_,” “_may agree_,” or “_must agree_,” with its noun. Nor has the indefinite article any variation of form, except the change from _an_ to _a_, which has been made for the sake of brevity or euphony.
OBS. 11.–As _an_ or _a_ conveys the idea of unity, of course it applies to no other than nouns of the singular number. _An eagle_ is one eagle, and the plural word _eagles_ denotes more than one; but what could possibly be meant by “_ans eagles_,” if such a phrase were invented? Harris very strangely says, “The Greeks have no article correspondent to _an_ or _a_, but _supply its place by a NEGATION of their article_. And even in English, _where_ the article _a_ cannot be used, as _in_ plurals, _its force is exprest by the same_ NEGATION.”–_Harris’s Hermes_, p. 218. What a sample of grammar is this! Besides several minor faults, we have here a _nonentity_, a NEGATION _of the Greek article_, made to occupy a place in language, and to express _force!_ The force of what? Of a plural _an_ or _a,!_ of such a word as _ans_ or _aes!_ The error of the first of these sentences, Dr. Blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture.
OBS. 12.–The following rules of agreement, though found in many English grammars, are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended, but so badly written as to be scarcely intelligible in any sense: 1. “The article _a_ or _an agrees_ with nouns _in_ the singular number _only, individually, or collectively_: as, A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand.” 2. “The definite article _the_ may _agree_ with nouns _in the singular_ AND[135] _plural number_: as, The garden, the houses, the stars.”–_Murray’s Gram._, 8vo, p. 170; 12mo, 139; _Fish’s Murray_, 98; _a Teacher’s_, 45. For the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of the articles, these rules are utterly useless; and for the purpose of syntactical parsing, or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech, they are awkward and inconvenient. The syntax of the articles may be much better expressed in this manner: “_Articles relate to the nouns which they limit_,” for, in English, the bearing of the articles upon other words is properly that of simple _relation_, or dependence, according to the sense, and not that of _agreement_, not a similarity of distinctive modifications.
OBS. 13.–Among all the works of earlier grammarians, I have never yet found a book which taught correctly the _application_ of the two forms of the indefinite article _an_ or _a_. Murray, contrary to Johnson and Webster, considers _a_ to be the original word, and _an_ the euphonic derivative. He says: “_A_ becomes _an_ before a vowel, and before a silent _h_. But if _the h be_ sounded, _the a only_ is to be used.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 31. To this he adds, in a marginal note, “_A instead of an_ is _now_ used before words beginning with _u_ long. It is used before _one. An_ must be used before _words_ WHERE _the h_ is not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable; as, _an heroic action, an historical account_.”–_Ib._ This explanation, clumsy as it is, in the whole conception; broken, prolix, deficient, and inaccurate as it is, both in style and doctrine; has been copied and copied from grammar to grammar, as if no one could possibly better it. Besides several other faults, it contains a palpable misuse of the article itself: “_the h_” which is specified in the second and fifth sentences, is the “_silent h_” of the first sentence; and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious solecisms of supposing, “_if the [silent] h be sounded_,” and of _locating “words WHERE the [silent] h is not silent!_” In the word _humour_, and its derivatives, the _h_ is silent, by all authority except Webster’s; and yet these words require _a_ and not _an_ before them.
OBS. 14.–It is the _sound_ only, that governs the form of the article, and not the _letter_ itself; as, “Those which admit of the regular form, are marked with _an_ R.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 101. “_A_ heroic poem, written by Virgil.”–_Webster’s Dict._ “Every poem of the kind has no doubt _a_ historical groundwork.”–_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 457. “A poet must be _a_ naturalist and _a_ historian.”–_Coleridge’s Introduction_, p. 111. Before _h_ in an unaccented syllable, either form of the article may be used without offence to the ear; and either may be made to appear preferable to the other, by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or less degree. But as the _h_, though ever so feebly aspirated has _something_ of a consonant sound, I incline to think the article in this case ought to conform to the general principle: as, “_A historical_ introduction has, generally, _a happy_ effect to rouse attention.”– _Blair’s Rhet._, p. 311. “He who would write heroic poems, should make his whole life _a heroic_ poem.”–See _Life of Schiller_, p. 56. Within two lines of this quotation, the biographer speaks of “_an_ heroic multitude!” The suppression of the sound of _h_ being with Englishmen a very common fault in pronunciation, it is not desirable to increase the error, by using a form of the article which naturally leads to it. “How often do we hear _an air_ metamorphosed into _a hair_, a _hat_ into a _gnat_, and a _hero_ into _a Nero!_”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 205. Thus: “Neither of them had that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror _an hero._”–_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 174.
OBS. 15.–Some later grammarians are still more faulty than Murray, in their rules for the application of _an_ or _a_. Thus Sanborn: “The vowels are _a, e, i, o_, and _u_. _An_ should be used before words beginning with _any of these letters_, or with a silent _h._”–_Analytical Gram._, p. 11. “_An_ is used before words beginning with _u_ long or with _h not silent_, when the accent is on the second syllable; as, _an united_ people, _an historical_ account, _an heroic_ action.”–_Ib._, p. 85. “_A_ is used when the next word begins with a _consonant; an_, when it begins with a _vowel_ or silent _h_.”–_lb._, p. 129. If these rules were believed and followed, they would greatly multiply errors.
OBS. 16.–Whether the word _a_ has been formed from _an_, or _an_ from _a_, is a disputed point–or rather, a point on which our grammarians dogmatize differently. This, if it be worth the search, must be settled by consulting some genuine writings of the twelfth century. In the pure Saxon of an earlier date, the words _seldom occur_; and in that ancient dialect _an_, I believe, is used only as a declinable numerical adjective, and _a_ only as a preposition. In the thirteenth century, both forms were in common use, in the sense now given them, as may be seen in the writings of Robert of Gloucester; though some writers of a much later date–or, at any rate, _one_, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, a Scottish bishop, who died of the plague in London, in 1522–constantly wrote _ane_ for both _an_ and _a_: as,
“Be not ouer studyous to spy _ane_ mote in myn E, That in gour awin _ane_ ferrye bot can not se.” –_Tooke’s Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 124.
“_Ane_ uthir mache to him was socht and sperit; Bot thare was _nane_ of all the rout that sterit.” –_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 160.
OBS. 17.–This, however, was a _Scotticism_; as is also the use of _ae_ for _a_: Gower and Chaucer used _an_ and _a_ as we now use them. The Rev. J. M. M’Culloch, in an English grammar published lately in Edinburgh, says, “_A_ and _an_ were originally _ae_ and _ane_, and were probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox.”–_Manual of E. Gram._, p. 30. For this idea, and indeed for a great part of his book, he is indebted to Dr. Crombie; who says, “To signify unity, or one of a class, our forefathers employed _ae_ or _ane_; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox.”–_Treatise on Etym. and Synt._, p. 53. These authors, like Webster, will have _a_ and _an_ to be _adjectives_. Dr. Johnson says, “_A_, an _article_ set before nouns of the singular number; as, _a_ man, _a_ tree. This article has no plural signification. Before a word beginning with a vowel, it is written _an_; as, _an_ ox, _an_ egg; of which _a_ is the contraction.”–_Quarto Dict., w. A_.
OBS. 18.–Dr. Webster says, “_A_ is also an abbreviation of the Saxon _an_ or _ane, one_, used before words beginning with an articulation; as, _a_ table, _instead_ of _an_ table, or one table. _This is a modern change_; for, in Saxon, _an_ was used before articulations as well as vowels; as, _an tid, a_ time, _an gear_, a year.”–_Webster’s Octavo Dict., w. A_. A modern change, indeed! By his own showing in other works, it was made long before the English language existed! He says, “_An_, therefore, is the original English adjective or ordinal number _one_; and was never written _a_ until after the Conquest.”–_Webster’s Philos. Gram._, p. 20; _Improved Gram._, 14. “_The Conquest_,” means the Norman Conquest, in 1066; but English was not written till the thirteenth century. This author has long been idly contending, that _an_ or _a_ is not an _article_, but an _adjective_; and that it is not properly distinguished by the term “_indefinite_.” Murray has answered him well enough, but he will not be convinced.[136] See _Murray’s Gram._, pp. 34 and 35. If _a_ and _one_ were equal, we could not say, “_Such a one_,”–“_What a one_,”–“_Many a one_,”–“_This one thing_;” and surely these are all good English, though _a_ and _one_ here admit no interchange. Nay, _a_ is sometimes found before _one_ when the latter is used adjectively; as, “There is no record in Holy Writ of the institution of _a one_ all-controlling monarchy.”–_Supremacy of the Pope Disproved_, p. 9. “If not to _a one_ Sole Arbiter.”–_Ib._, p. 19.
OBS. 19.–_An_ is sometimes a _conjunction_, signifying _if_; as, “Nay, _an_ thou’lt mouthe, I’ll rant as well as thou.”–_Shak._ “_An_ I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to fifty tunes, may a cup of sack be my poison.”–_Id., Falstaff_. “But, _an_ it were to do again, I should write again.”–_Lord Byron’s Letters_. “But _an_ it be a long part, I can’t remember it.”–SHAKSPEARE: _Burgh’s Speaker_, p. 136.
OBS. 20.–In the New Testament, we meet with several such expressions as the following: “And his disciples were _an hungred_.”–SCOTT’S BIBLE: _Matt_, xii, 1. “When he was _an hungred._”–_Ib._ xii, 3. “When he had need and was _an hungered._”–_Ib. Mark_, ii, 25. Alger, the improver of Murray’s Grammar, and editor of the Pronouncing Bible, taking this _an_ to be the indefinite article, and perceiving that the _h_ is sounded in _hungered_, changed the particle to _a_ in all these passages; as, “And his disciples were _a hungered_.” But what sense he thought he had made of the sacred record, I know not. The Greek text, rendered word for word, is simply this: “_And his disciples hungered_.” And that the sentences above, taken either way, are _not good English_, must be obvious to every intelligent reader. _An_, as I apprehend, is here a mere _prefix_, which has somehow been mistaken in form, and erroneously disjoined from the following word. If so, the correction ought to be made after the fashion of the following passage from Bishop M’Ilvaine: “On a certain occasion, our Saviour was followed by five thousand men, into a desert place, where they were _enhungered_.”–_Lectures on Christianity_, p. 210.
OBS. 21.–The word _a_, when it does not denote one thing of a kind, is not an article, but a genuine _preposition_; being probably the same as the French a, signifying _to, at, on, in_, or _of_: as, “Who hath it? He that died _a_ Wednesday.”–_Shak_. That is, _on_ Wednesday. So sometimes before plurals; as, “He carves _a_ Sundays.”–_Swift_. That is, _on_ Sundays. “He is let out _a_ nights.”–_Id._ That is, _on_ nights–like the following example: “A pack of rascals that walk the streets _on_ nights.”–_Id._ “He will knap the spears _a_ pieces with his teeth.”–_More’s Antid._ That is, _in_ pieces, or _to_ pieces. So in the compound word _now-a-days_, where it means _on_; and in the proper names, Thomas _a_ Becket, Thomas _a_ Kempis, Anthony _a_ Wood, where it means _at_ or _of_.
“Bot certainly the daisit blude _now on dayis_ Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unwieldy age.”–_Douglas._
OBS. 22.–As a preposition, _a_ has now most generally become a _prefix_, or what the grammarians call an inseparable preposition; as in _abed_, in bed; _aboard_, on board; _abroad_, at large; _afire_, on fire; _afore_, in front; _afoul_, in contact; _aloft_, on high; _aloud_, with loudness; _amain_, at main strength; _amidst_, in the midst; _akin_, of kin; _ajar_, unfastened; _ahead_, onward; _afield_, to the field; _alee_, to the leeward; _anew_, of new, with renewal. “_A-nights_, he was in the practice of sleeping, &c.; but _a-days_ he kept looking on the barren ocean, shedding tears.”–_Dr. Murray’s Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 162. Compounds of this kind, in most instances, follow verbs, and are consequently reckoned adverbs; as, _To go astray,–To turn aside,–To soar aloft,–To fall asleep_. But sometimes the antecedent term is a noun or a pronoun, and then they are as clearly adjectives; as, “Imagination is like to work better upon sleeping men, than _men awake_.”–_Lord Bacon._ “_Man alive_, did you ever make a _hornet afraid_, or catch a _weasel asleep?_” And sometimes the compound governs a noun or a pronoun after it, and then it is a preposition; as, “A bridge is laid _across_ a river.”–_Webster’s Dict._, “To break his bridge _athwart_ the Hellespont.”–_Bacon’s Essays._
“Where Ufens glides _along_ the lowly lands, Or the black water of Pomptina stands.”–_Dryden._
OBS. 23.–In several phrases, not yet to be accounted obsolete, this old preposition _a_ still retains its place as a separate word; and none have been more perplexing to superficial grammarians, than those which are formed by using it before participles in _ing_; in which instances, the participles are in fact governed by it: for nothing is more common in our language, than for participles of this form to be governed by prepositions. For example, “You have set the cask _a_ leaking,” and, “You have set the cask _to_ leaking,” are exactly equivalent, both in meaning and construction. “Forty and six years was this temple _in_ building.”–_John, ii, 20._ _Building_ is not here a noun, but a participle; and _in_ is here better than _a_, only because the phrase, _a building_, might be taken for an article and a noun, meaning _an edifice_.[137] Yet, in almost all cases, other prepositions are, I think, to be preferred to _a_, if others equivalent to it can be found. Examples: “Lastly, they go about to apologize for the long time their book hath been _a coming_ out:” i.e., _in_ coming out.–_Barclay’s Works_, Vol. iii, p. 179. “And, for want of reason, he falls _a railing_::” i.e., _to_ railing.–_Ib._, iii, 357. “That the soul should be this moment busy _a thinking_:” i.e., _at_ or _in_ thinking.–_Locke’s Essay_, p. 78. “Which, once set _a going_, continue in the same steps:” i.e., _to_ going.–_Ib._, p. 284. “Those who contend for four per cent, have set men’s mouths _a watering_ for money:” i.e., _to_ watering.–LOCKE: _in Johnson’s Dict._ “An other falls _a ringing_ a Pescennius Niger:” i.e., _to_ ringing.–ADDISON: _ib._ “At least to set others _a thinking_ upon the subject:” i.e., _to_ thinking.–_Johnson’s Gram. Com._, p. 300. “Every one that could reach it, cut off a piece, and fell _a eating_:” i.e., _to_ eating.–_Newspaper._ “To go _a mothering_,[138] is to visit parents on Midlent Sunday.”–_Webster’s Dict., w. Mothering._ “Which we may find when we come _a fishing_ here.”–_Wotton._ “They go _a begging_ to a bankrupt’s door.”–_Dryden._ “_A hunting_ Chloe went.”–_Prior._ “They burst out _a laughing_.”–_M. Edgeworth._ In the last six sentences, _a_ seems more suitable than any other preposition would be: all it needs, is an accent to distinguish it from the article; as, _a_.
OBS. 24.–Dr. Alexander Murray says, “To be _a_-seeking, is the relic of the Saxon to be _on_ or _an_ seeking. What are you a-seeking? is _different_ from, What are you seeking? It means more fully _the going on_ with the process.”–_Hist. Europ. Lang_,, Vol. ii, p. 149. I disapprove of the hyphen in such terms as “_a_ seeking,” because it converts the preposition and participle into I know not what; and it may be observed, in passing, that the want of it, in such as “_the going on_,” leaves us a loose and questionable word, which, by the conversion of the participle into a noun, becomes a nondescript in grammar. I dissent also from Dr. Murray, concerning the use of the preposition or prefix _a_, in examples like that which he has here chosen. After a _neuter verb_, this particle is unnecessary to the sense, and, I think, injurious to the construction. Except in poetry, which is measured by syllables, it may be omitted without any substitute; as, “I am _a walking_.”–_Johnson’s Dict., w. A_. “He had one only daughter, and she lay _a_ dying.”–_Luke_, viii, 42. “In the days of Noah, while the ark was _a_ preparing.”–_1 Pet._, iii, 20. “Though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere _a_ wandering.”–_Locke’s Essay_, p. 284. Say–“be wandering elsewhere;” and omit the _a_, in all such cases.
“And–when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is _a_ ripening–nips his root.”–_Shak_.
OBS. 25.–“_A_ has a peculiar signification, denoting the proportion of one thing to an other. Thus we say, The landlord hath a hundred _a_ year; the ship’s crew gained a thousand pounds _a_ man.”–_Johnson’s Dict._ “After the rate of twenty leagues _a_ day.”–_Addison_. “And corn was at two sesterces _a_ bushel.”–_Duncan’s Cicero_, p. 82. Whether _a_ in this construction is the article or the preposition, seems to be questionable. Merchants are very much in the habit of supplying its place by the Latin preposition _per_, by; as, “Board, at $2 _per_ week.”–_Preston’s Book-Keeping_, p. 44. “Long lawn, at $12 _per_ piece.”–_Dilworth’s_, p. 63. “Cotton, at 2s. 6d. _per_ pound.”–_Morrison’s_, p. 75. “Exchange, at 12d. _per_ livre.”–_Jackson’s_, p. 73. It is to be observed that _an_, as well as _a_, is used in this manner; as, “The price is one dollar _an_ ounce.” Hence, I think, we may infer, that this is not the old preposition _a_, but the article _an_ or _a_, used in the distributive sense of _each_ or _every_, and that the noun is governed by a preposition understood; as, “He demands a dollar _an_ hour;” i. e., a dollar _for each_ hour.–“He comes twice _a_ year:” i. e., twice _in every_ year.–“He sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand _a_ month by courses:” (_1 Kings_, v, 14:) i. e., ten thousand, _monthly_; or, as our merchants say, “_per month_.” Some grammarians have also remarked, that, “In mercantile accounts, we frequently see _a_ put for _to_, in a very odd sort of way; as, ‘Six bales marked 1 _a_ 6.’ The merchant means, ‘marked _from_ 1 to 6.’ This is taken to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the law and mercantile language of England; for, in French, _a_, with an accent, signifies _to_ or _at_.”–_Emmons’s Gram._, p. 73. Modern merchants, in stead of accenting the _a_, commonly turn the end of it back; as, @.
OBS. 26.–Sometimes a numeral word with the indefinite article–as _a few, a great many, a dozen, a hundred, a thousand_–denotes an aggregate of several or many taken collectively, and yet is followed by a plural noun, denoting the sort or species of which this particular aggregate is a part: as, “A few small fishes,”–“A great many mistakes,”–“A dozen bottles of wine,”–“A hundred lighted candles,”–“A thousand miles off.” Respecting the proper manner of explaining these phrases, grammarians differ in opinion. That the article relates not to the plural noun, but to the numerical word only, is very evident; but whether, in these instances, the words _few, many, dozen, hundred_, and _thousand_, are to be called nouns or adjectives, is matter of dispute. Lowth, Murray, and many others, call them _adjectives_, and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the article;–like that of the singular adjectives _every_ and _one_ in the phrases, “_Every_ ten days,”–“_One_ seven times more.”–_Dan._, iii, 19. Churchill and others call them _nouns_, and suppose the plurals which follow, to be always in the objective case governed by _of_, understood: as, “A few [of] years,”–“A thousand [of] doors;”–like the phrases, “A _couple of_ fowls,”–“A _score of_ fat bullocks.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 279. Neither solution is free from difficulty. For example: “There are a great many adjectives.”–_Dr. Adam_. Now, if _many_ is here a singular nominative, and the only subject of the verb, what shall we do with _are_? and if it is a plural adjective, what shall we do with _a_ and _great?_ Taken in either of these ways, the construction is anomalous. One can hardly think the word “_adjectives_” to be here in the objective case, because the supposed ellipsis of the word _of_ cannot be proved; and if _many_ is a noun, the two words are perhaps in apposition, in the nominative. If I say, “_A thousand men_ are on their way,” the men _are the thousand_, and the thousand _is nothing but the men_; so that I see not why the relation of the terms may not be that of _apposition_. But if _authorities_ are to decide the question, doubtless we must yield it to those who suppose the whole numeral phrase to be taken _adjectively_; as, “Most young Christians have, in the course of _half a dozen_ years, time to read _a great many_ pages.”–_Young Christian_, p. 6.
“For harbour at _a thousand doors_ they knock’d; Not one of all _the thousand_ but was lock’d.”–_Dryden_.
OBS. 27.–The numeral words considered above, seem to have been originally adjectives, and such may be their most proper construction now; but all of them are susceptible of being construed as nouns, even if they are not such in the examples which have been cited. _Dozen_, or _hundred_, or _thousand_, when taken abstractly, is unquestionably a noun; for we often speak of _dozens, hundreds_, and _thousands_. _Few_ and _many_ never assume the plural form, because they have naturally a plural signification; and _a few_ or _a great many_ is not a collection so definite that we can well conceive of _fews_ and _manies_; but both are sometimes construed substantively, though in modern English[139] it seems to be mostly by ellipsis of the noun. Example: “The praise of _the judicious few_ is an ample compensation for the neglect of _the illiterate many_.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 278. Dr. Johnson says, the word _many_ is remarkable in Saxon for its frequent use. The following are some of the examples in which he calls it a substantive, or noun: “After him the rascal _many_ ran.”–_Spenser_. “O thou fond _many_.”–_Shakspeare_. “A care-craz’d mother of a _many_ children.”–_Id._ “And for thy sake have I shed _many_ a tear.”–_Id._ “The vulgar and the _many_ are fit only to be led or driven.”–_South_. “He is liable to a great _many_ inconveniences every moment of his life.”–_Tillotson_. “Seeing a great _many_ in rich gowns, he was amazed.”–_Addison_.
“There parting from the king, the chiefs divide, And wheeling east and west, before their _many_ ride.”–_Dryden_.
OBS. 28.–“On the principle here laid down, we may account for a peculiar use of the article with the adjective _few_, and some other diminutives. In saying, ‘A _few_ of his adherents remained with him;’ we insinuate, that they constituted a number sufficiently important to be formed into an aggregate: while, if the article be omitted, as, ‘_Few_ of his adherents remained with him;’ this implies, that he was nearly deserted, by representing them as individuals not worth reckoning up. A similar difference occurs between the phrases: ‘He exhibited _a little_ regard for his character;’ and ‘He exhibited _little_ regard for his character.'”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 279. The word _little_, in its most proper construction, is an adjective, signifying _small_; as, “He was _little_ of stature.”–_Luke_. “Is it not a _little_ one?”–_Genesis_. And in sentences like the following, it is also reckoned an adjective, though the article seems to relate to it, rather than to the subsequent noun; or perhaps it may be taken as relating to them both: “Yet _a little_ sleep, _a little_ slumber, _a little_ folding of the hands to sleep.”–_Prov._, vi, 10; xxiv, 33. But by a common ellipsis, it is used as a noun, both with and without the article; as, “_A little_ that a righteous man hath, is better than the riches of many wicked.”–_Psalms_, xxxvii, 16. “Better is _little_ with the fear of the Lord, than great treasure and trouble therewith.”–_Prov._, xv, 16. “He that despiseth little things, shall perish by _little_ and _little_.”–_Ecclesiasticus_. It is also used adverbially, both alone and with the article _a_; as, “The poor sleep _little_.”–_Otway_. “Though they are _a little_ astringent.”–_Arbuthnot_. “When he had gone _a little_ farther thence.”–_Mark_, i, 19. “Let us vary the phrase [in] _a very little_” [degree].–_Kames_, Vol. ii, p. 163.
OBS. 29.–“As it is the nature of the articles to limit the signification of a word, they are applicable only to words expressing ideas capable of being individualized, or conceived of as single things or acts; and nouns implying a general state, condition, or habit, must be used without the article. It is not vaguely therefore, but on fixed principles, that the article is omitted, or inserted, in such phrases as the following: ‘in terror, in fear, in dread, in haste, in sickness, in pain, in trouble; in _a_ fright, in _a_ hurry, in _a_ consumption; _the_ pain of his wound was great; her son’s dissipated life was _a_ great trouble to her.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 127.
OBS. 30.–Though _the, an_, and _a_, are the only articles in our language, they are far from being the only definitives. Hence, while some have objected to the peculiar distinction bestowed upon these little words, firmly insisting on throwing them in among the common mass of adjectives; others have taught, that the definitive adjectives–I know not how many–such as, _this, that, these, those, any, other, some, all, both, each, every, either, neither_–“are much more properly articles than any thing else.”–_Hermes_, p. 234. But, in spite of this opinion, it has somehow happened, that these definitive adjectives have very generally, and very absurdly, acquired the name of _pronouns_. Hence, we find Booth, who certainly excelled most other grammarians in learning and acuteness, marvelling that the _articles_ “were ever separated from the class of _pronouns_.” To all this I reply, that _the, an_, and _a_, are worthy to be distinguished as _the only articles_, because they are not only used with much greater _frequency_ than any other definitives, but are specially restricted to the limiting of the signification of nouns. Whereas the other definitives above mentioned are very often used to supply the place of their nouns; that is, to represent them understood. For, in general, it is only by ellipsis of the noun after it, and not as the representative of a noun going before, that any one of these words assumes the appearance of a pronoun. Hence, they are not pronouns, but adjectives. Nor are they “more properly articles than any thing else;” for, “if the essence of an article be to define and ascertain” the meaning of a noun, this very conception of the thing necessarily supposes the noun to be used with it.
OBS. 31.–The following example, or explanation, may show what is meant by definitives. Let the general term be _man_, the plural of which is _men: A man_–one unknown or indefinite; _The man_–one known or particular; _The men_–some particular ones; _Any man_–one indefinitely; _A certain man_–one definitely; _This man_–one near; _That man_–one distant; _These men_–several near; _Those men_–several distant; _Such a man_–one like some other; _Such men_–some like others; _Many a man_–a multitude taken singly; _Many men_–an indefinite multitude taken plurally; _A thousand men_–a definite multitude; _Every man_–all or each without exception; _Each man_–both or all taken separately; _Some man_–one, as opposed to none; _Some men_–an indefinite number or part; _All men_–the whole taken plurally; _No men_–none of the sex; _No man_–never one of the race.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
PRAXIS II–ETYMOLOGICAL.
_In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil–to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and to explain the_ ARTICLES _as definite or indefinite.
The definitions to be given in the Second Praxis, are two for an article, and one for a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:–
EXAMPLE PARSED.
“The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road.”–_G. Brown_.
_The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things.
_Task_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.
_Schoolmaster_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_Laboriously_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.
_Prompting_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb.
_And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.
_Urging_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb.
_An_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.
_Indolent_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.
_Class_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.
_Is_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_.
_Worse_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.
_Than_ is a conjunction. 1, A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.
_He_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.
_Who_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.
_Drives_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_.
_Lazy_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or