_appearance and effect_ of conjunctions: as, ‘_After_ their prisons were thrown open,’ &c. ‘_Before_ I die;’ ‘They made haste to be prepared _against_ their friends arrived:’ but if the noun _time_, which is _understood_, be added, they will lose their _conjunctive form_: as, ‘After [_the time when_] their prisons,’ &c.”–_Octavo Gram._, p. 119. Here, _after, before_, and _against_, are neither conjunctions nor prepositions, but conjunctive _adverbs of time_, referring to the verbs which follow them, and also, when the sentences are completed, to others antecedent. The awkward addition of “_the time when_,” is a sheer perversion. If _after, before_, and the like, can ever be adverbs, they are so here, and not conjunctions, or prepositions.
OBS. 5.–But the great Compiler proceeds: “The _prepositions, after, before, above, beneath_, and several others, sometimes _appear to be adverbs_, and may be _so considered_: as, ‘They had their reward soon _after_;’ ‘He died not long _before_;’ ‘He dwells _above_;’ but if the nouns _time_ and _place_ be added, they will lose their adverbial form: as, ‘He died not long _before that time_,’ &c.”–_Ib._ Now, I say, when any of the foregoing words “_appear_ to be adverbs,” they _are_ adverbs, and, if adverbs, then not prepositions. But to consider prepositions to be adverbs, as Murray here does, or seems to do; and to suppose “the NOUNS _time_ AND _place_” to be understood in the several examples here cited, as he also does, or seems to do; are singly such absurdities as no grammarian should fail to detect, and together such a knot of blunders, as ought to be wondered at, even in the Compiler’s humblest copyist. In the following text, there is neither preposition nor ellipsis:
“Above, below, without, within, around, Confus’d, unnumber’d multitudes are found.”–_Pope, on Fame_.
OBS. 6.–It comports with the name and design of this work, which is a broad synopsis of grammatical criticism, to notice here one other absurdity; namely, the doctrine of “_sentential nouns_.” There is something of this in several late grammars: as, “The prepositions, after, before, ere, since, till, and until, frequently govern _sentential_ nouns; and after, before, since, notwithstanding, and some others, frequently govern a noun or pronoun _understood_. A preposition governing a sentential noun, is, by Murray and others, considered a _conjunction_; and a preposition governing a noun understood, an _adverb_.”–J. L. PARKHURST: _in Sanborn’s Gram._, p. 123. “Example: ‘He will, _before he dies_, sway the sceptre.’ _He dies_ is a sentential noun, third person, singular number; and is governed by _before_; _before he dies_, being equivalent in meaning to _before his death_.”–_Sanborn, Gram._, p. 176. “‘_After they had waited_ a long time, they departed.’ After _waiting_.”–_Ib._ This last solution supposes the phrase, “_waiting a long time_,” or at least the participle _waiting_, to be a _noun_; for, upon the author’s principle of equivalence, “_they had waited_,” will otherwise be a “_sentential_” _participle_–a thing however as good and as classical as the other!
OBS. 7.–If a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object, it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions, like the following: “For _in that_ he died, he died unto sin once; but _in that_ he liveth, he liveth unto God.”–_Rom._, vi, 10. “My Spirit shall not always strive with man, _for that_ he also is flesh.”–_Gen._, vi, 3. “For, _after that_, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe.”–_1 Cor._, i, 21. Here, _in, for_, and _after_, are all followed by the word _that_; which Tooke, Webster, Frazee, and some others, will have to be “a substitute,” or “pronoun,” representing the sentence which follows it, and governed by the preposition. But _that_, in this sense, is usually, and perhaps more properly, reckoned a conjunction. And if we take it so, _in, for_, and _after_, (unless the latter be an adverb,) must either be reckoned conjunctions also, or be supposed to govern sentences. The expressions however are little used; because “_in that_” is nearly equivalent to _as_; “_for that_” can be better expressed by _because_; and “_after that_,” which is equivalent to [Greek: epeide], _postquam_, may well be rendered by the term, _seeing that_, or _since_. “_Before that_ Philip called thee,” is a similar example; but “_that_” is here needless, and “_before_” may be parsed as a conjunctive adverb of time. I have one example more: “But, _besides that_ he attempted it formerly with no success, it is certain the Venetians keep too watchful an eye,” &c.–_Addison_. This is good English, but the word “_besides_” if it be not a conjunction, may as well be called an adverb, as a preposition.
OBS. 8.–There are but few words in the list of prepositions, that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech. Thus _bating, excepting, concerning, touching, respecting, during, pending_, and a part of the compound _notwithstanding_, are literally participles; and some writers, in opposition to general custom, refer them always to their original class. Unlike most other prepositions, they do not refer to _place_, but rather to _action, state_, or _duration_; for, even as prepositions, they are still allied to participles. Yet to suppose them always participles, as would Dr. Webster and some others, is impracticable. Examples: “They speak _concerning_ virtue.”–_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 69. Here _concerning_ cannot be a participle, because its antecedent term is a _verb_, and the meaning is, “they _speak_ of virtue.” “They are bound _during life_.” that is, _durante vita_, life continuing, or, as long as life lasts. So, “_Notwithstanding this_,” i.e., “_hoc non obstante_,” this not hindering. Here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words. “Since he had succeeded, _notwithstanding them_, peaceably to the throne.”–_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 31. “This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth’s _criticism_, to the contrary _notwithstanding_.”–_Webster’s Improved Gram._, p. 85. In the phrase, “_notwithstanding them_,” the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter; but Dr. Webster doubtless supposed the word “_criticism_” to be in the nominative case, put absolute with the participle: and so it would have been, had he written _not withstanding_ as two words, like “_non obstante_;” but the compound word _notwithstanding_ is not a participle, because there is no verb _to notwithstand_. But _notwithstanding_, when placed before a nominative, or before the conjunction _that_, is a conjunction, and, as such, must be rendered in Latin by _tamen_, yet, _quamvis_, although, or _nihilominus_, nevertheless.
OBS. 9.–_For_, when it signifies _because_, is a conjunction: as, “Boast not thyself of to-morrow; _for_ thou knowest not what a day may bring forth.”–_Prov._, xxvii, 1. _For_ has this meaning, and, according to Dr. Johnson, is a conjunction, when it precedes _that_; as, “Yet _for that_ the worst men are most ready to remove, I would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men.”–_Spenser._ The phrase, as I have before suggested, is almost obsolete; but Murray, in one place, adopts it from Dr. Beattie: “For _that_ those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses.”–_Octavo Gram._, p. 75. How he would have parsed it, does not appear. But both words are connectives. And, from the analogy of those terms which serve as links to other terms, I should incline to take _for that, in that, after that_, and _besides that_, (in which a known conjunction is put last,) as complex conjunctions; and also, to take _as for, as to_, and _because of_, (in which a known preposition is put last,) as complex prepositions. But there are other regular and equivalent expressions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of these.
OBS. 10.–Several words besides those contained in the list above, are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions: as, _A_, (chiefly used before participles,) _abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, anear, aneath, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwixt, besouth, bywest, cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maugre, minus, onto, opposite, outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, withinside_.
OBS. 11.–Dr. Lowth says, “The particle _a_ before participles, in the phrases _a_ coming, _a_ going, _a_ walking, _a_ shooting, &c. and before nouns, as _a_-bed, _a_-board, _a_-shore, _a_-foot, &c. seems to be _a true and genuine preposition_, a little disguised by familiar use and quick pronunciation. Dr. Wallis supposes it to be the preposition _at_. I rather think it is the preposition _on_.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill’s_, 268. There is no need of supposing it to be either. It is not from _on_; for in Saxon it sometimes accompanied _on_: as in the phrase, “_on a weoruld_;” that is, “_on to ages_;” or, as Wickliffe rendered it, “_into worldis_;” or, as our version has it, “_for ever_.” See _Luke_, i, 55. This preposition was in use long before either _a_ or _an_, as an article, appeared in its present form in the language; and, for ought I can discover, it may be as old as either _on_ or _at_. _An_, too, is found to have had at times the sense and construction of _in_ or _on_; and this usage is, beyond doubt, older than that which makes it an article. _On_, however, was an exceedingly common preposition in Saxon, being used almost always where we now put _on, in, into, upon_, or _among_, and sometimes, for _with_ or _by_; so, sometimes, where _a_ was afterwards used: thus, “What in the Saxon Gospel of John, is, ‘Ic wylle gan _on_ fixoth,’ is, in the English version, ‘I go _a_ fishing.’ Chap, xxi, ver. 3.” See _Lowth’s Gram._, p. 65; _Churchill’s_, 269. And _a_ is now sometimes equivalent to _on_; as, “He would have a learned University make Barbarisms a purpose.”–_Bentley, Diss. on Phalaris_, p. 223. That is,–“_on_ purpose.” How absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the foregoing text!–“I go _on_ a fishing.”–_Alden’s Gram._, p. 117. “I go _on_ a fishing voyage or business.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 221; _Merchant’s_, 101. “It may not be improper,” says Churchill in another place, “to observe here, that the preposition _on_, is too frequently pronounced as if it were the vowel _a_, in ordinary conversation; and this corruption _is_ [has] become so prevalent, that I have even met with ‘laid it _a oneside_’ in a periodical publication. It should have been ‘_on one side_,’ if the expression were meant to be particular; ‘_aside_,’ if general.”–_New Gram._, p. 345. By these writers, _a_ is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of _of_: as, “Much in the same manner, Thomas _of_ Becket, by very frequent and familiar use, became Thomas _a_ Becket; and one _of the_ clock, or perhaps _on the_ clock, is written one o’clock, but pronounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with _a_ before a participle are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse. They are established by long usage, and good authority; and there seems to be no reason, why they should be utterly rejected.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 66. “Much in the same manner, John _of_ Nokes, and John _of_ Styles, become John _a_ Nokes, and John _a_ Styles: and one _of the_ clock, or rather _on the_ clock, is written one _o_’clock, but pronounced one _a_ clock. The phrases with a before participles, are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse.”–_Churchill’s New Gram._, p. 269.
OBS. 12.–The following are _examples_ of the less usual prepositions, _a_, and others that begin with _a_: “And he set–three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work.”–_2 Chron._, ii, 18. “Who goeth _a_ warfare any time at his own charges?”–_1 Cor._, ix, 7. “And the mixed multitude that was among them fell _a_ lusting.”–_Num._, xi, 4.
“And sweet Billy Dimond, _a_ patting his hair up.” –_Feast of the Poets_, p. 17.
“The god fell _a_ laughing to see his mistake.” –_Ib._, p. 18.
“You’d have thought ’twas the bishops or judges _a_ coming.” –_Ib._, p. 22.
“A place on the lower deck, _abaft_ the mainmast.”–_Gregory’s Dict._ “A moment gazed _adown_ the dale.”–_Scott, L. L._, p. 10. “_Adown_ Strath-Gartney’s valley broad.”–_Ib._, p. 84. “For _afore_ the harvest, when the bud is perfect,” &c.–_Isaiah_, xviii, 5. “Where the great luminary _aloof_ the vulgar constellations thick,”–See _Milton’s Paradise Lost_, B. iii, l. 576. “The great luminary _aloft_ the vulgar constellations thick.”–_Johnson’s Dict., w. Aloft_. “Captain Falconer having previously gone _alongside_, the Constitution.”–_Newspaper_. “Seventeen ships sailed for New England, and _aboard_ these above fifteen hundred persons.”–_Robertson’s Amer._, ii, 429. “There is a willow grows _askant_ the brook:” Or, as in some editions: “There is a willow grows _aslant_ the brook.”–SHAK., _Hamlet_, Act iv, 7. “_Aslant_ the dew-bright earth.”–_Thomson_. “Swift as meteors glide _aslope_ a summer eve.”–_Fenton_. “_Aneath_ the heavy rain.”–_James Hogg_, “With his magic spectacles _astride_ his nose.”–_Merchant’s Criticisms_.
“_Atween_ his downy wings be furnished, there.” –_Wordsworth’s Poems_, p. 147.
“And there a season _atween_ June and May.” –_Castle of Indolence_, C. i, st. 2.
OBS. 13.–The following are examples of rather unusual prepositions beginning with _b, c_, or _d_; “Or where wild-meeting oceans boil _besouth_ Magellan.”–_Burns_. “Whereupon grew that _by-word_, used by the Irish, that they dwelt _by-west_ the law, _which_ dwelt beyond the river _of the_ Barrow.”–DAVIES: in _Joh. Dict._ Here Johnson calls _by-west_ a noun substantive, and Webster, as improperly, marks it for an adverb. No hyphen is needed in _byword_ or _bywest_. The first syllable of the latter is pronounced _be_, and ought to be written so, if “_besouth_” is right.
“From Cephalonia _cross_ the surgy main Philaetius late arrived, a faithful swain.” –_Pope, Odys._, B. xx, l. 234.
“And _cross_ their limits cut a sloping way, Which the twelve signs in beauteous order sway.” –_Dryden’s Virgil_.
“A fox was taking a walk one night _cross_ a village.”–_L’Estrange_. “The enemy had cut down great trees _cross_ the ways.”–_Knolles_. “DEHORS, prep. [Fr.] Without: as, ‘_dehors_ the land.’ Blackstone.”–_Worcester’s Dict._, 8vo. “You have believed, _despite_ too our physical conformation.”–_Bulwer_.
“And Roderick shall his welcome make, _Despite_ old spleen, for Douglas’ sake.” –_Scott, L. L._, C. ii, st. 26.
OBS. 14.–The following quotations illustrate further the list of unusual prepositions: “And she would be often weeping _inside_ the room while George was amusing himself without.”–_Anna Ross_, p. 81. “Several nuts grow closely together, _inside_ this prickly covering.”–_Jacob Abbot_. “An other boy asked why the peachstone was not _outside_ the peach.”–_Id._ “As if listening to the sounds _withinside_ it.”–_Gardiner’s Music of Nature_, p. 214. “Sir Knight, you well might mark the mound, _Left hand_ the town.”–_Scott’s Marmion_. “Thus Butler, _maugre_ his wicked intention, sent them home again.”–_Sewel’s Hist._, p. 256. “And, _maugre_ all that can be said in its favour.”–_Stone, on Freemasonry_, p. 121. “And, _maugre_ the authority of Sterne, I even doubt its benevolence.”–_West’s Letters_, p. 29.
“I through the ample air in triumph high Shall lead Hell captive _maugre_ Hell.” –_Milton’s P. L._, B. iii, l. 255.
“When Mr. Seaman arose in the morning, he found himself _minus_ his coat, vest, pocket-handkerchief, and tobacco-box.”–_Newspaper_. “Throw some coals _onto_ the fire.”–FORBY: _Worcester’s Dict., w. Onto_. “Flour, at $4 _per_ barrel.”–_Preston’s Book-Keeping_. “Which amount, _per_ invoice, to $4000.”–_Ib._ “_To Smiths_ is the substantive _Smiths, plus_ the preposition _to_.”–_Fowler’s E. Gram._, Sec.33. “The Mayor of Lynn _versus_ Turner.”–_Cowper’s Reports_, p. 86. “Slaves were imported from Africa, _via_ Cuba.”–_Society in America_, i, 327. “_Pending_ the discussion of this subject, a memorial was presented.”–_Gov. Everett_.
“Darts his experienced eye and soon _traverse_ The whole battalion views their order due.”–_Milton_.
“Because, when _thorough_ deserts vast And regions desolate they past.”–_Hudibras_.
OBS. 15.–_Minus_, less, _plus_, more, _per_, by, _versus_, towards, or against, and _via_, by the way of, are Latin words; and it is not very consistent with the _purity_ of our tongue, to use them as above. _Sans_, without, is French, and not now heard with us. _Afore_ for _before, atween_ for _between, traverse_ for _across, thorough_ for _through_, and _withal_ for _with_, are obsolete. _Withal_ was never placed before its object, but was once very common at the end of a sentence. I think it not properly a preposition, but rather an adverb. It occurs in Shakspeare, and so does _sans_; as,
“I did laugh, _sans_ intermission, an hour by his dial.” –_As You Like It_.
“I pr’ythee, _whom_ doth he trot _withal_?” –_Ib._
“_Sans_ teeth, _sans_ eyes, _sans_ taste, _sans_ every thing.” –_Ib._
OBS. 16.–Of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following, the reader may now judge for himself: “In consideration of what passes sometimes _within-side of_ those vehicles.”–_Spectator_, No. 533. “Watch over yourself, and let nothing throw you _off from_ your guard.”–_District School_, p. 54. “The windows broken, the door _off from_ the hinges, the roof open and leaky.”–_Ib._, p. 71. “He was always a shrewd observer of men, _in and out of_ power.”–_Knapp’s Life of Burr_, p. viii. “Who had never been broken _in to_ the experience of sea voyages.”–_Timothy Flint_. “And there came a fire _out from before_ the Lord.”–_Leviticus_, ix, 24. “Because eight readers _out of_ ten, it is believed, forget it.”–_Brown’s Estimate_, ii, 32. “Fifty days after the _Passover_, and _their coming out of_ Egypt.”–_Watts’s Script. Hist._, p. 57. “As the mountains are _round about_ Jerusalem, so the Lord is _round about_ his people.”–_Psal._, cxxv, 2. “Literally, ‘I proceeded _forth from out of_ God and am come.'”–_Gurney’s Essays_, p. 161. “But he that came _down from_ (or _from out of_) heaven.”–_Ibid._
“Here none the last funereal rights receive; To be cast _forth the camp_, is all their friends can give.” –_Rowe’s Lucan_, vi, 166.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
PRAXIS X.–ETYMOLOGICAL.
_In the Tenth Praxis, it is required of the pupil–to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, _and_ PREPOSITIONS.
_The definitions to be given in the Tenth Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and one for an interjection. Thus_:–
EXAMPLE PARSED.
“Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil.”–_Maxims_.
_Never_ is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask.
_Adventure_ is a regular active-intransitive verb, from _adventure, adventured, adventuring, adventured_; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, singular (or it may be plural) number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action that has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.
_On_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_Too_ is an adverb of degree. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of decree are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or to the idea of _more or less_.
_Near_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared, _near, nearer, 2.[sic–KTH] nearest_ or _next_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.
_An_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.
_Approach_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.
_To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_What_ is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or stats of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.
_Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of a verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.
_Evil_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.
LESSON I.–PARSING.
“My Lord, I do here, in the name of all the learned and polite persons of the nation, complain to your Lordship, as first minister, that our language is imperfect; that its daily improvements are by no means in proportion to its daily corruptions; that the pretenders to polish and refine it, have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities; and that, in many instances, it offends against every part of grammar.”–_Dean Swift, to the Earl of Oxford_.
“Swift must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter; to which he was himself very attentive, both in his own writings, and in his remarks upon those of his friends: He is one of the most correct, and perhaps [he is] the best, of our prose writers. Indeed the justness of this complaint, _as_ far as I can find, _hath_ never yet been questioned; and yet no effectual method _hath_ hitherto been taken to redress the grievance which was the object of it.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. iv.
“The only proper use to be made of the blemishes which occur in the writings of such authors, [as Addison and Swift–authors whose ‘faults are overbalanced by high beauties’–] is, to point out to those who apply themselves to the study of composition, some of the rules which they ought to observe for avoiding such errors; and to render them sensible of the necessity of strict attention to language and style.”–_Blair’s Rhet._, p. 233.
“Thee, therefore, and with thee myself I weep, For thee and me I mourn in anguish deep.”–_Pope’s Homer_.
LESSON II.–PARSING.
“The southern corner of Europe, comprehended between the thirty-sixth and fortieth degrees of latitude, bordering on Epirus and Macedonia towards the north, and on other sides surrounded by the sea, was inhabited, above eighteen centuries before the Christian era, by many small tribes of hunters and shepherds, among whom the Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most numerous and powerful.”–_Gillies, Gr._, p. 12.
“In a vigorous exertion of memory, ideal presence is exceedingly distinct: thus, when a man, entirely occupied with some event that made a deep impression, forgets himself, he perceives every thing as passing before him, and has a consciousness of presence, similar to that of a spectator.”–_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 88.
“Each planet revolves about its own axis in a given time; and each moves round the sun, in an orbit nearly circular, and in a time proportioned to its distance. Their velocities, directed by an established law, are perpetually changing by regular accelerations and retardations.”–_Ib._, i, 271.
“You may as well go about to turn the sun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock’s feather.”–_Shak_.
“_Ch. Justice_. I sent for you, when there were matters against you for your life, to come speak with me. _Falstaff_. As I was then advised by my learned counsel in the laws of this land-service, I did not come.”–_Id._, 2. Hen. IV, Act i, Sc. 2.
“It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect; to see the cheeks take the die of the passions and appear in all the colors of thought.”–_Collier_.
———-“Even from out thy slime
The monsters of the deep are made.”–_Byron_.
LESSON III.–PARSING.
“With a mind weary of conjecture, fatigued by doubt, sick of disputation, eager for knowledge, anxious for certainty, and unable to attain it by the best use of my reason in matters of the utmost importance, I _have_ long ago turned my thoughts to an impartial examination of the proofs on which revealed religion is grounded, and I am convinced of its truth.”–_Bp. Watson’s Apology_, p. 69.
“The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be.”–_Gen._, xlix, 10.
“Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths. But I say unto you, Swear not at all: neither by heaven; for it is God’s throne: nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great King. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head; because thou canst not make one hair white or black.”–_Matt._, v, 33–36.
“Refined manners, and polite behaviour, must not be deemed altogether artificial: men who, inured to the sweets of society, cultivate humanity, find an elegant pleasure in preferring others, and making them happy, of which the proud, the selfish, scarcely have a conception.”–_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 105.
“Bacchus, that first from out the purple grape Crush’d the sweet poison of misused wine.”–_Milton_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING PREPOSITIONS.
“Nouns are often formed by participles.”–_L. Murray’s Index, Octavo Gram._, ii, 290.
[FORMULE.–Not proper, because the relation here intended, between _are formed_ and _participles_, is not well signified by the preposition by. But, according to Observation 7th, on this part of speech, “The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety.” This relation would be better expressed by _from_; thus, “Nouns are often formed _from_ participles.”]
“What tenses are formed on the perfect participle?”–_Ingersoll’s Gram._, p. 104. “Which tense is formed on the present?”–_Ibid._ “When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence,” &c.–_Ib._, p. 150; _Murray_, 145; and others. “If the addition consists in two or more words.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 176; _Ingersoll’s_, 177. “The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sentence.”–_Mur._, p. 184; _Ing._, 244; and others. “For the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present him with a variety of false constructions.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 189. “For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety of false constructions.”–_Ingersoll’s Gram._, p. 258. “I shall here present you with a scale of derivation.”–_Bucke’s Gram._, p. 81. “These two manners of representation in respect of number.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 15; _Churchill’s_, 57; “There are certain adjectives, which seem to be derived without any variation from verbs.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 89. “Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof of others.”–_Murray’s Key_, 8vo, p. 253. “For being more studious than any other pupil of the school.”–_Ib._, p. 226. “From misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way.”–_Ib._, p. 201. “These people reduced the greater part of the island to their own power.”–_Ib._, p. 261.[317] “The principal accent distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 236. “Just numbers are in unison to the human mind.”–_Ib._, p. 298. “We must accept of sound instead of sense.”–_Ib._, p. 298. “Also, instead for _consultation_, he uses _consult_.”–_Priestley’s Gram._, p. 143. “This ablative seems to be governed of a preposition understood.”–_Walker’s Particles_, p. 268. “That my father may not hear on’t by some means or other.”–_Ib._, p. 257. “And besides, my wife would hear on’t by some means.”–_Ib._, p. 81. “For insisting in a requisition is so odious to them.”–_Robertson’s Amer._, i, 206. “Based in the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality.”–_Scholar’s Manual_. “Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling book.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 21. “They do not cut it off: except in a few words; as, _due, duly_, &c.”–_Ib._, p. 24. “Whether passing in such time, or then finished.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 31. “It hath disgusted hundreds of that confession.”–_Barclay’s Works_, iii, 269. “But they have egregiously fallen in that inconveniency.”–_Ib._, iii, 73. “For is not this to set nature a work?”–_Ib._, i, 270. “And surely that which should set all its springs a-work, is God.”–ATTERBURY: _in Blair’s Rhet._, p. 298. “He could not end his treatise without a panegyric of modern learning.”–TEMPLE: _ib._, p. 110. “These are entirely independent on the modulation of the voice.”–_Walker’s Elocution_, p. 308. “It is dear of a penny. It is cheap of twenty pounds.”–_Walker’s Particles_, p. 274. “It will be despatched, in most occasions, without resting.”–_Locke_. “‘0, the pain the bliss in dying.'”–_Kirkham’s Gram._, p. 129. “When [he is] presented with the objects or the facts.”–_Smith’s Productive Gram._, p. 5. “I will now present you with a synopsis.”–_Ib._, p. 25. “The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees.”–_Ib._, p. 38. “I shall now present you with a few lines.”–_Bucke’s Classical Gram_, p. 13. “Common names of Substantives are those, which stand for things generally.”–_Ib._, p. 31. “Adjectives in the English language admit no variety in gender, number, or case whatever, except that of the degrees of comparison.”–_Ib._, p. 48. “Participles are adjectives formed of verbs.”–_Ib._, p. 63. “I do love to walk out of a fine summer’s evening.”–_Ib._, p. 97. “An _Ellipsis_, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence.”–_Merchant’s Gram._, p. 99. “The prefix _to_ is generally placed before verbs in the infinitive mood, but before the following verbs it is properly omitted; (viz.) _bid, make, see, dare, need, hear, feel_, and _let_; as, He _bid_ me _do_ it; He _made_ me _learn_; &c.”–_Ib., Stereotype Edition_, p. 91; _Old Edition_, 85. “The infinitive sometimes follows _than_, after a comparison; as, I wish nothing more, _than to know_ his fate.”–_Ib._, p. 92. See _Murray’s Gram._, 8vo, i, 184. “Or by prefixing the adverbs _more_ or _less_, in the comparative, and _most_ or _least_, in the superlative.”–_Merchant’s Gram._, p. 36. “A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.”–_Ib._, p. 17; _Comly_, 15. “In monosyllables the Comparative is regularly formed by adding _r_ or _er_.”–_Perley’s Gram._, p. 21. “He has particularly named these, in distinction to others.”–_Harris’s Hermes_, p. vi. “To revive the decaying taste of antient Literature.”–_Ib._, p. xv. “He found the greatest difficulty of writing.”–HUME: _in Priestley’s Gram._, p. 159.
“And the tear that is wip’d with a little address May be followed perhaps with a smile.” _Webster’s American Spelling-Book_, p. 78; and _Murray’s E. Reader_, p. 212.
CHAPTER XI–INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, _Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!_
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.–Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. Unimpassioned writings reject this part of speech altogether. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. Some significant words, perhaps more properly belonging to other classes, are sometimes ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner; as, _strange! prodigious! indeed!_ Wells says, “_Other parts of speech_, used by way of exclamation, are _properly regarded as interjections_; as, _hark! surprising! mercy!_”–_School Gram._, 1846, p. 110. This is an evident absurdity; because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different. Nor is it right to say, “_Other parts of speech_ are frequently used _to perform the office_ of interjections.”–_Wells_, 1850, p. 120.
OBS. 2.–The word _interjection_ comes to us from the Latin name _interjectio_, the root of which is the verb _interjicio_, to throw between, to interject. Interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between _the parts of discourse_, without any syntactical connexion with other words. Dr. Lowth, in his haste, happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds “thrown in between the parts _of a sentence_;” and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the Interjection since. See Murray’s Grammar and others. Webster’s Dictionary defines it as, “A word thrown in between _words connected in construction_;” but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation.
OBS. 3.–The following is a fair sample of “Smith’s _New Grammar_,”–i.e., of “English Grammar on the _Productive System_,”–a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense: “Q. When I exclaim, ‘Oh! I have ruined my friend,’ ‘Alas! I fear for life,’ _which words_ here appear to be thrown in _between the sentences_, to express passion or feeling? Ans. _Oh! Alas!_ Q. What does _interjection_ mean? Ans. _Thrown between_. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as _oh! alas! &c._? Ans. INTERJECTIONS. Q. What, then, are interjections? Ans. Interjections are words thrown in _between the parts of sentences_, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. Q. How may an interjection generally be known? Ans. By _its taking_ an exclamation _point_ after it: [as,] ‘_Oh!_ I have alienated my friend.'”–_R. C. Smith’s New Gram._, p. 39. Of the interjection, this author gives, in his examples for parsing, _fifteen_ other instances; but nothing can be more obvious, than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either “between sentences” or between the parts of any sentence! (See _New Gram._, pp. 40 and 96.) Can he be a competent grammarian, who does not know the meaning of _between_; or who, knowing it, misapplies so very plain a word?
OBS. 4.–The Interjection, which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language, is now very constantly set down, among the parts of speech, as the last of the series. But, for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words, some of our grammarians have adopted the term _exclamation_. Of the old and usual term _interjection_, a recent writer justly says, “This name is preferable to that of _exclamation_, for some exclamations are not interjections, and some interjections are not exclamations.”–GIBBS: _Fowler’s E. Gram._, Sec.333.
LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS.
The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate:–1. Of joy; _eigh! hey! io!_–2. Of sorrow; _oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay!_ or _welaway!_–3. Of wonder; _heigh! ha! strange! indeed!_–4. Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute;) _O!_–5. Of praise; _well-done! good! bravo!_–6. Of surprise with disapproval; _whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what!_–7. Of pain or fear; _oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear!_–8. Of contempt; _fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph!_–9. Of aversion; _foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy!_[318]–10. Of expulsion; _out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!_–11. Of calling aloud; _ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!_–12. Of exultation; _ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah!_–13. Of laughter; _ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee._–14. Of salutation; _welcome! hail! all-hail!_–15. Of calling to attention; _ho! lo! la! law![319] look! see! behold! hark!_–16. Of calling to silence; _hush! hist! whist! ‘st! aw! mum!_–17. Of dread or horror; _oh! ha! hah! what!_–18. Of languor or weariness; _heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum!_–19. Of stopping; _hold! soft! avast! whoh!_–20. Of parting; _farewell! adieu! good-by! good-day!_–21. Of knowing or detecting; _oho! ahah! ay-ay!_–22. Of interrogating; _eh? ha? hey?_[320]
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.–With the interjections, may perhaps be reckoned _hau_ and _gee_, the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle; and other similar sounds, useful under certain circumstances, but seldom found in books. Besides these, and all the foregoing, there are several others, too often heard, which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language. The frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. Philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether. Yet are there several words of this kind, which in earnest utterance, animated poetry, or impassioned declamation, are not only natural, but exceedingly expressive: as, “Lift up thy voice, _O_ daughter of Gallim; cause it to be heard unto Laish, _O_ poor Anathoth.”–_Isaiah_, x, 30. “_Alas, alas_, that great city Babylon, that mighty city! for in one hour is thy judgement come.”–_Rev._, xviii, 10.
“_Ah me!_ forbear, returns the queen, forbear; _Oh!_ talk not, talk not of vain beauty’s care.” –_Odyssey_, B. xviii, l. 310.
OBS. 2.–Interjections, being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries, must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them, and never carelessly confounded one with an other when we express them on paper. The adverb _ay_ is sometimes improperly written for the interjection _ah_; as, _ay me!_ for _ah me!_ and still oftener we find _oh_, an interjection of sorrow, pain, or surprise,[321] written in stead of _O_, the proper sign of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address: as,
“_Oh_ Happiness! our being’s end and aim!” –_Pope, Ess. Ep._ iv, l. 1.
“And peace, _oh_ Virtue! peace is all thy own.” –_Id., ib., Ep._ iv, l. 82.
“_Oh_ stay, O pride of Greece! Ulysses, stay! O cease thy course, and listen to our lay!” –_Odys._, B. xii, 1 222.
OBS. 3.–The chief characteristics of the interjection are independence, exclamation, and the want of any definable signification. Yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class, will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection. Indeed the last, (the want of a rational meaning,) would seem to exclude them from the language; for _words_ must needs be significant of something. Hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse, or the lowing of a cow. There is some reason in this; but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them, is to some extent instinctively understood; and does constitute a sort of significance, though we cannot really define it. And, as their use in language, or in connexion with language, makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar, it is certainly more proper to treat them as above, than to follow the plan of the Greek grammarians, most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of _adverbs_.
OBS. 4.–Significant words uttered independently, after the manner of interjections, ought in general, perhaps, to be referred to their original classes; for all such expressions may be supposed elliptical: as, “_Order!_ gentlemen, _order!_” i.e., “Come to order,”–or, “Keep order.” “_Silence!_” i.e., “Preserve silence.” “_Out! out!_” i.e., “Get out,”–or, “Clear out!” (See Obs. 5th and 6th, upon Adverbs.)
“Charge, Chester, charge! _On_, Stanley, _on_! Were the last words of Marmion.”–_Scott_.
OBS. 5.–In some instances, interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns; as,
“I may sit in a corner, and cry _hey-ho_ for a husband.”–_Shak_.
So, according to James White, in his Essay on the Verb, is the word _fie_, in the following example:
“If you deny me, _fie_ upon your law.”–SHAK.: _White’s Verb_, p. 163.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
PRAXIS XI.–ETYMOLOGICAL.
_In the Eleventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil–to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and_ ALL _their classes and modifications.
The definitions to be given in the Eleventh Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus_:–
EXAMPLE PARSED.
“O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!”–_Brown’s Inst._, p. 92.
_O_ is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 2. The interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is _O_.
_Sooner_ is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree; compared, _soon, sooner, soonest_. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask. 3. The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it.
_Shall_ is an auxiliary to _fall_. 1. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion.
_The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things.
_Earth_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.
_And_ is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.
_Stars_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.
_Fall_, or _Shall fall_, is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from _fall, fell, falling, fallen_; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and plural number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one.
_Into_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_Chaos_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.
LESSON I.–PARSING.
“Ah! St. Anthony preserve me!–Ah–ah–eh–eh!–Why–why–after all, your hand is not so co-o-o-old, neither. Of the two, it is rather warmer than my own. Can it be, though, that you are not dead?” “Not I.”–MOLIERE: _in Burgh’s Speaker_, p. 232.
“I’ll make you change your cuckoo note, you old philosophical humdrum, you–[_Beats him_]–I will–[_Beats him_]. I’ll make you say somewhat else than, ‘All things are doubtful; all things are uncertain;’–[_Beats him_]–I will, you old fusty pedant.” “Ah!–oh!–ehl–What, beat a philosopher!–Ah!–oh!–eh!”–MOLIERE: _ib._, p. 247.
“What! will these hands never be clean?–No more of that, my lord; no more of that. You mar all with this starting.” * * * “Here is the smell of blood still.–All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! oh! oh!”–_Shak., Macbeth_, Act V, Sc. 1.
“Ha! at the gates what grisly forms appear! What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear!”–_Merry._
LESSON II.–PARSING.
“Yet this may be the situation of some now known to us.–O frightful thought! O horrible image! Forbid it, O Father of mercy! If it be possible, let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath, against which the strength of thy whole creation united, would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt!”–_Burgh’s Speaker_, p. 289.
“If it be so, our God, whom we serve, is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he will deliver us out of thine hand, O king. But if not, be it known unto thee, O king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up.”–_Daniel_, iii, 17 and 18.
“Grant me patience, just Heaven!–Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world–though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst–the cant of criticism is the most tormenting!”–_Sterne_.
“Ah, no! Achilles meets a shameful fate, Oh! how unworthy of the brave and great.”–_Pope_.
LESSON III.–PARSING.
“O let not thy heart despise me! thou whom experience has not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess.”–_Dr. Johnson_.
“Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery! still thou art a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account.”–_Sterne_.
“Put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character; and if any body reports you not to be an honest or a good man, let your practice give him the lie. This is all very feasible.”–_Antoninus_.
“Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts!”–_Shakspeare_.
“All these afar off stood, crying, Alas! Alas! and wept, and gnashed their teeth, and groaned; And with the owl, that on her ruins sat, Made dolorous concert in the ear of Night.”–_Pollok_.
“Snatch’d in thy prime! alas, the stroke were mild, Had my frail form obey’d the fate’s decree! Blest were my lot, O Cynthio! O my child! Had Heaven so pleas’d, and I had died for thee!”–_Shenstone_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING INTERJECTIONS.
“Of chance or change, oh let not man complain.”–_Bucke’s Classical Gram._, p. 85.
[FORMULE.–Not proper, because the interjection _oh_, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise, is here used to indicate mere earnestness. But, according to the list of interjections, or OBS. 2d under it, the interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is _O_, and not _oh_. Therefore, _oh_ should here be _O_; thus, “Of chance or change, _O_ let not man complain.”–_Beattie’s Minstrel_, B. ii, l. 1.]
“O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites.”–_Merchant’s Gram._, p. 99; _et al_. “Oh! thou, who touchedst Isaiah’s hallowed lips with fire.”–_Ib._, (_Key_,) p. 197. “Oh! happy we, surrounded by so many blessings.”–_Ib._, (_Exercises_,) p. 138. “Oh! thou, who art so unmindful of thy duty.”–_Ib._, (_Key_,) p. 196. “If I am wrong, oh teach my heart To find that better way.”–_Pope’s Works_. “Heus! evocate hue Davum. _Ter_. Hoe! call Davus out hither.”–_Walker’s Particles_, p. 155. “It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the religion of paganism.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 281. “Oh that Ishmael might live before thee!”–ALGER’S BIBLE: _Gen._, xvii, 18. “And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak.”–FRIENDS’ BIBLE: _Gen._, xviii, 30. “And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry.”–ID., and SCOTT’S: _ib._, ver. 32. “Oh, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word.”–FRIENDS’ BIBLE, and ALGER’S: _Gen._, xliv, 18. “Oh, Virtue! how amiable thou art! I fear, alas! for my life.”–_Fisk’s Gram._, p. 89. “Ay me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain.”–_Milton’s P. L._, B. iv, l. 86. “Oh! that I had digged myself a cave.”–FLETCHER: _in Bucke’s Gram._, p. 78. “O, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late.”–SHAK.: _ib._, p. 78. “The vocative takes no article; it is distinguished thus: _O Pedro_, Oh Peter! _O Dios_, Oh God!”–_Bucke’s Gram._, p. 43. “Oh, o! But, the relative is always the same.”–_Cobbett’s Eng. Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 127. “Oh, oh! But, the relative is always the same.”–_Id._, Edition of 1832, p. 116. “Ah hail, ye happy men!”–_Jaudon’s Gram._, p. 116. “Oh that I had wings like a dove!”–FRIENDS’ BIBLE, and ALGER’S: _Ps._, lv, 6. “Oh Glorious hope! O Blessed abode!”–_O. B. Peirce’s Gram._, p. 183. “Alas, Friends, how joyous is your presence.”–_Rev. T. Smith’s Gram._, p. 87. “Oh, blissful days! Ah me! how soon ye pass!”–_Parker and Fox’s Gram._, Part I, p. 16; Part III, p. 29.
“Oh golden days! oh bright unvalued hours! What bliss (did ye but know that bliss) were yours!”–_Barbauld_.
“Ay me! what perils do eviron
The man that meddles with cold iron.”–_Hudibras_.
CHAPTER XII.–QUESTIONS.
ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.
PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY.
[Fist] [The following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the Etymology of this work, and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy, before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of English grammar.]
LESSON I.–PARTS OF SPEECH.
1. Of what does Etymology treat? 2. What is meant by the term, “_Parts of Speech?_” 3. What are _Classes_, under the parts of speech? 4. What are _Modifications?_ 5. How many and what are the parts of speech? 6. What is an article? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. What is a pronoun? 10. What is a verb? 11. What is a participle? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. What is a preposition? 15. What is an interjection?
LESSON II.–PARSING.
1. What is _Parsing?_ and what relation does it bear to grammar? 2. What is a _Praxis?_ and what is said of the word? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 5. How is the following example parsed? “The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _First Chapter_, or the _First Praxis_.]
LESSON III.–ARTICLES.
1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are _an_ and _a_ different articles, or the same? 3. When ought _an_ to be used, and what are the examples? 4. When should _a_ be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of _w_ and _y_ require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with _an_ or _a_ before the name of each letter? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with _an_ or _a_ before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species? 12. But how does _an_ or _a_ commonly limit the sense? 13. And how does _the_ commonly limit the sense? 14. Which number does _the_ limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is _the_ required before adjectives? 16. Why is _an_ or _a_ not applicable to plurals? 17. What is said of _an_ or _a_ before an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote? 23. Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 24. What modifications have the articles?
LESSON IV.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Second Chapter_, or the _Second Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of _bad English_, with which the Second Chapter concludes.]
LESSON V.–NOUNS.
1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 3. What is a proper noun? 4. What is a common noun? 5. What particular classes are included among common nouns? 6. What is a collective noun? 7. What is an abstract noun? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifications have nouns? 10. What are _Persons_, in grammar? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called? 12. What is the first person? 13. What is the second person? 14. What is the third person? 15. What are _Numbers_, in grammar? 16. How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the singular number? 18. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed? 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables? 21. How is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable? LESSON VI–NOUNS.
1. What are _Genders_, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the masculine gender? 4. What is the feminine gender? 5. What is the neuter gender? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine? what, feminine? and what, neuter? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender? 8. On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually determined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated? 15. What are _Cases_, in grammar? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb? 19. What is the possessive case? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 21. What is the objective case? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished? 24. What is the declension of a noun? 25. How do you decline the nouns, _friend, man, fox_, and _fly?_
LESSON VII–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the THIRD PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example to be parsed? “The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott’s.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Third Chapter_, or the _Third Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Third Chapter concludes.]
LESSON VIII.–ADJECTIVES.
1. What is an ADJECTIVE, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjectives be divided? 3. What is a common adjective? 4. What is a proper adjective? 5. What is a numeral adjective? 6. What is a pronominal adjective? 7. What is a participial adjective? 8. What is a compound adjective? 9. What modifications have adjectives? 10. What is comparison, in grammar? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison? 12. What is the positive degree? 13. What is the comparative degree? 14. What is the superlative degree? 15. What adjectives cannot be compared? 16. What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 17. How are adjectives regularly compared? 18. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by _er_ and _est_, applicable? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the degrees of diminution, or inferiority, expressed? 22. Has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind? 23. Do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by _er_ and _est_? 24. How do you compare _good? bad, evil_, or _ill? little? much? many?_ 25. How do you compare _far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low? late?_ 26. What words want the positive? 27. What words want the comparative?
LESSON IX.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Fourth Chapter_, or the _Fourth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lesons of _bad English_, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON X.–PRONOUNS.
1. What is a PRONOUN, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there? 3. How are pronouns divided? 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. How many and what are the simple personal pronouns? 6. How many and what are the compound personal pronouns? 7. What is a relative pronoun? 8. Which are the relative pronouns? 9. What peculiarity has the relative _what_? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns? 12. Do _who, which_, and _what_, all ask the same question? 13. What modifications have pronouns? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns? 15. What is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you decline the pronoun _I? Thou? He? She? It?_ 17. What is said of the compound personal pronouns? 18. How do you decline the pronoun _Myself? Thyself? Himself? Herself? Itself?_ 19. Are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you decline _Who? Which? What? That? As?_ 21. Have the compound relative pronouns any declension? 22. How do you decline _Whoever? Whosoever? Whichever? Whichsoever? Whatever? Whatsoever?_
LESSON XI.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FIFTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Fifth Chapter_, or the _Fifth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Fifth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XII.–VERBS.
1. What is a VERB, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are verbs called by that name? 3. Respecting an English verb, what things are to be sought in the first place? 4. What is _the Present_? 5. What is _the Preterit_? 6. What is _the Imperfect Participle_? 7. What is the _Perfect Participle_? 8. How are verbs divided, with respect to their form? 9. What is a regular verb? 10. What is an irregular verb? 11. What is a redundant verb? 12. What is a defective verb? 13. How are verbs divided, with respect to their signification? 14. What is an active-transitive verb? 15. What is an active-intransitive verb? 16. What is a passive verb? 17. What is a neuter verb? 18. What modifications have verbs? 19. What are _Moods_, in grammar? 20. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 21. What is the infinitive mood? 22. What is the indicative mood? 23. What is the potential mood? 24. What is the subjunctive mood? 25. What is the imperative mood?
LESSON XIII.–VERBS.
1. What are _Tenses_, in grammar? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the present tense? 4. What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What are the _Person_ and _Number_ of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things defined under the head of verbs? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them? 14. What is the conjugation of a verb? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries? 19. What are the inflections of the verb _do_, in its simple tenses? 20. What are the inflections of the verb _be_, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb _have_, in its simple tenses? 22. What are the inflections and uses of _shall_ and _will_? 23. What are the inflections and uses of _may_? 24. What are the inflections and uses of _can_? 25. What are the uses of _must_, which is uninflected? 26. To what style is the inflecting of _shall, will, may, can, should, would, might_, and _could_, now restricted?
LESSON XIV.–VERBS.
1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 2. What is the first example of conjugation? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the _infinitive_ mood?–the _indicative_?–the _potential_?–the _subjunctive_?–the _imperative_? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the _Infinitive_, present?–perfect?– _Indicative_, present?–imperfect?–perfect?–pluperfect?–first-future?– second-future?–_Potential_, present?–imperfect?–perfect?–pluperfect?– _Subjunctive_, present?–imperfect?–_Imperative_, present? 24. What are its participles?
LESSON XV.–VERBS.
1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singular?–second person singular, solemn style?–third person singular?–first person plural?–second person plural?–third person plural? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed?
LESSON XVI.–VERBS.
1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb _see_, with the pronoun _I? thou? he? we? you? they?_
LESSON XVII.–VERBS.
1. What is the third example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb _be_, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men?_
LESSON XVIII.–VERBS.
1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb READ? 5. How is the verb READ conjugated in the compound form? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE READING, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys?_
LESSON XIX.–VERBS.
1. How are passive verbs formed? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation? 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative _I? thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children?_
LESSON XX.–VERBS.
1. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb _love_ in the first person singular? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular? 4. What is the form for the familiar style? 5. What is the negative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _he_? 6. How is the verb conjugated interrogatively? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _I_? 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style? 10. What is the interrogative form of the verb _love_ with the pronoun _he_? 11. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural?
LESSON XXI.–VERBS.
1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write?
LESSON XXII.–VERBS.
1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, dress, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulet, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb? 5. What verbs are defective?
LESSON XXIII.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Sixth Chapter_, or the _Sixth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXIV.–PARTICIPLES.
1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of participles are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the imperfect participle? 4. What is the perfect participle? 5. What is the preperfect participle? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed? 8. How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive?
LESSON XXV.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed: “Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Seventh Chapter_, or the _Seventh Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of _bad English_, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVI.–ADVERBS.
1. What is an ADVERB, and what is the example given? 2. To what general classes may adverbs be reduced? 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place? 5. What are adverbs of degree? 6. What are adverbs of manner? 1. What are conjunctive adverbs? 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided? 11. How may the adverbs of degree be subdivided? 12. How may the adverbs of manner be subdivided? 13. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How do we compare _well, badly_ or _ill, little, much, far_, and _forth_? 15. Of what degree is the adverb _rather_? 16. What is said of the comparison of adverbs by _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_?
LESSON XXVII.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Eighth Chapter_, or the _Eighth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Eighth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVIII.–CONJUNCTIONS.
1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives? 6. How do prepositions differ from other connectives? 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions?
LESSON XXIX.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it.”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Ninth Chapter_, or the _Ninth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXX.–PREPOSITIONS.
1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given? 2. Are the prepositions divided into classes? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with _a_?–with _b_?–with _c_?–with _d_?–with _e_?–with _f_?–with _i_?–with _m_?–with _n_?–with _o_?–with _p_?–with _r_?–with _s_?–with _t_?–with _u_?–with _w_? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions?
LESSON XXXI.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil?”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Tenth Chapter_, or the _Tenth Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXXII.–INTERJECTIONS.
1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are interjections so called? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list? 4. What are the interjections of joy?–of praise?–of sorrow?–of wonder?–of wishing or earnestness?–of pain or fear?–of contempt?–of aversion?–of calling aloud?–of exultation?–of laughter?–of salutation?–of calling to attention?–of calling to silence?–of surprise or horror?–of languor?–of stopping?–of parting?–of knowing or detecting?–of interrogating?
LESSON XXXIII.–PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? “O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!”
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the _Eleventh Chapter_, or the _Eleventh Praxis_; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of _bad English_, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.]
CHAPTER XIII.–FOR WRITING.
EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY.
[When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting, he should write out the following exercises; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.]
EXERCISE I.–ARTICLES.
1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns: path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries.
2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns: age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour.
3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases: George Second–fair appearance–part first–reasons most obvious–good man–wide circle–man of honour–man of world–old books–common people–same person–smaller piece–rich and poor–first and last–all time–great excess–nine muses–how rich reward–so small number–all ancient writers–in nature of things–much better course.
4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases: new name–very quick motion–other sheep–such power–what instance–great weight–such worthy cause–to great difference–high honour–humble station–universal law–what strange event–so deep interest–as firm hope–so great wit–humorous story–such person–few dollars–little reflection.
EXERCISE II.–NOUNS.
1. Write the plurals of the following nouns: town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citizen.
2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave.
3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns: table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial, precipice, countess, lordship.
4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother.
5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch.
EXERCISE III.–ADJECTIVES.
1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word: good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus–good _manners_, &c.
2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word: man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus–_wise_ man, &c.
3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form: black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast.
4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase: delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct.
5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution: objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant.
EXERCISE IV.–PRONOUNS.
1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms: he’s, her’s, it’s, our’s, your’s, their’s, who’s, myself, hisself, theirselves.
4. Write together in declension the following pronouns, according to the agreement of each two: I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself it itself.
5. Rewrite the following sentences, and make them good English: “Nor is the criminal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound.”–_Wrights Gram._, p. 193. “The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self.”–_Ib._ “_May_, or _can_, in its self, denotes possibility.”–_Ib._, p. 216. “Consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, should be written,–he, _his self_;–she, _her self_;–ye or you, _your selves_; they, _their selves_.”–_Ib._, p. 154. “Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction.”–_Ib._, p. 155. “In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, _ourself_.”–_Churchill’s Gram._, p. 78. “Each has it’s peculiar advantages.”–_Ib._, p. 283. “Who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree.”–_The Friend_, iv, 302. “It is difficult to look inwardly on oneself.”–_Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention_. p. 287.
EXERCISE V.–VERBS.
1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs: slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza, pretend, deliver, arrest.
2. Write the following preterits, each in its appropriate form: exprest, stript, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, linkt, propt, fixt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, skipt, kist, discust, tackt.
3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, second person singular: move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue, defend, surpass, conquer, deliver, enlighten, protect, polish.
4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias, compel, degrade, efface, garnish, handle, induce.
5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, present tense, in the three persons singular: serve, shun, turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, pretend, expose, alarm, deprive, transgress.
EXERCISE VI.–VERBS.
1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb _amuse_, conjugated affirmatively.
2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb _sit_, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style.
3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb _speak_, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form.
4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb _be reduced_, conjugated affirmatively.
5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb _lose_, conjugated negatively.
6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb _stand_, conjugated interrogatively.
7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb _derive_, conjugated interrogatively and negatively.
EXERCISE VII.–PARTICIPLES.
1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember.
2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist.
3. Write the preperfect participles of the following verbs: depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot.
4. Write the following participles each in its appropriate form: dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt.
5. Write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones: blent, blest, clad, curst, diven, drest, graven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, lit, mown, mulct, past, pent, quit, riven, roast, sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, striven, strown, sweat, swollen, thriven, waxen.
6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones: abided, bended, builded, bursted, catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dwelled, freezed, grinded, knitted, layed, meaned, payed, reaved, slided, speeded, splitted, stringed, sweeped, throwed, weaved, weeped, winded.
EXERCISE VIII.–ADVERBS, &c.
1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, long, fast, near, early, well, badly _or_ ill, little, much, far, forth.
2. Place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably, easily.
3. Place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, powerfully, solemnly.
4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes: Love–fidelity are inseparable. Be shy of parties–factions. Do well–boast not. Improve time–it flies. There would be few paupers–no time were lost. Be not proud–thou art human. I saw–it was necessary. Wisdom is better–wealth. Neither he–I can do it. Wisdom–folly governs us. Take care–thou fall. Though I should boast–am I nothing.
5. Insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes: Plead–the dumb. Qualify thyself–action–study. Think often–the worth–time. Live–peace–all men. Keep–compass. Jest not–serious subjects. Take no part–slander. Guilt starts–its own shadow. Grudge not–giving. Go not–sleep–malice. Debate not–temptation. Depend not–the stores–others. Contend not–trifles. Many fall–grasping–things–their reach. Be deaf–detraction.
6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh! for that sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare!
PART III.
SYNTAX.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The _relation_ of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.
The _agreement_ of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.
The _government_ of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.
The _arrangement_ of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.
CHAPTER I.–SENTENCES.
A _Sentence_ is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as, “Reward sweetens labour.”
The _principal parts_ of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,–the attribute, or finite VERB,–and the case put after, or the OBJECT[322] governed by the verb: as, “_Crimes deserve punishment_.”
The _other_ or _subordinate parts_ depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary _adjuncts_; as, “_High_ crimes _justly_ deserve _very severe_ punishments.”
Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, _simple_ and _compound_.[323]
A _simple sentence_ is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as, “David and Jonathan loved each other.”–“If thine enemy hunger.”–“Do violence to no man.”–“Am I not an apostle?”–_1 Cor._, ix, 1. “What immortal glory shall I have acquired!”–HOOKE: _Mur. Seq._, p. 71.
A _compound sentence_ is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as, “Send men to Joppa, _and_ call for Simon, _whose_ surname is Peter; _who_ shall tell thee words, _whereby_ thou and all thy house shall be saved.”–_Acts_, xi, 13. “The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents.”–HAYLEY: _Mur. Seq._, p. 250.
A _clause_, or _member_, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as, “If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink.”–_Prov._, xxv, 21.[324]
A _phrase_ is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as, “By the means appointed.”–“To be plain with you.”–“Having loved his own.”
Words that are omitted by _ellipsis_, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing.
The _leading principles_ to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.
THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
RULE I.–ARTICLES.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit.
RULE II.–NOMINATIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.
RULE III.–APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case.
RULE IV.–POSSESSIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed.
RULE V.–OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VI.–SAME CASES.
A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing.
RULE VII.–OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VIII.–NOM. ABSOLUTE.
A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word.
RULE IX.–ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns.
RULE X.–PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender.
RULE XI–PRONOUNS.
When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XII.–PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XIII.–PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XIV.–FINITE VERBS.
Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number.
RULE XV.–FINITE VERBS.
When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XVI.–FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XVII.–FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XVIII.–INFINITIVES.
The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb.
RULE XIX.–INFINITIVES.
The active verbs, _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see_, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO.
RULE XX.–PARTICIPLES.
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions.
RULE XXI.–ADVERBS.
Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs.
RULE XXII.–CONJUNCTIONS.
Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences.
RULE XXIII.–PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them.
RULE XXIV.–INTERJECTIONS.
Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words.
GENERAL OR CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNTAX.
OBS. 1.–An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call _Syntax_. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only, “_concord_ and _government_” say little or nothing of the _relation_ and _arrangement_ of words, except as these are involved in the others. The four things are essentially different in their nature, as may be seen by the definitions given above, yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, on this occasion, preferred the order of the parts of speech; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology.
OBS. 2.–_Agreement_ and _concord_ are one and the same thing. _Relation_ and _agreement_, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agreement; of these the _relation_ and _use_ must be explained in parsing; and all _requisite agreement_ between any of the rest, is confined to words that _relate_ to each other. For one word may _relate_ to an other and not _agree_ with it; but there is never any _necessary agreement_ between words that have not a _relation_ one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically.
OBS. 3.–From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehensive principle of English syntax, is the simple _Relation_ of words, according to the sense. To this head alone, ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nominatives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our interjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of concord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that _no rules_ of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech.
OBS. 4.–Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the _perversions_, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax: “The construction of sentences depends principally upon the _concord_ or _agreement_, and the _regimen_ or _government_, of words.”–_Lowth’s Gram._, p. 68; _Churchill’s_, 120. “Words in sentences have a _twofold relation_ to one another; namely, that of _Concord_ or Agreement; and that of _Government_ or Influence.”–_Dr. Adam’s Latin and English Grammar_, p. 151. “The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the _agreement and construction_ of words in a sentence.”–_E. G. Greene’s Grammatical Text-Book_, p. 15. “Syntax principally consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.”–_Murray’s Gram._, p. 142; _Ingersoll’s_, 170; _Alger’s_, 51; _R. C. Smith’s_, 119; and many others. “Syntax consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.”–_Kirkham’s Gram._, p. 175; _Wright’s_, 124. “The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, _Concord, Government_, and _Position_.”–_Bullions’s E. Gram._, p. 87. “_Position_ means the _place_ which a word occupies in a sentence.”–_Ib._ “These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of _agreement_ and _government_; the remainder may be termed _miscellaneous_.”–_Nutting’s Gram._, p. 92. “Syntax treats of the agreement, government and proper arrangement of words in _a sentence_.”–_Frost’s El. of Gram._, p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often _corrupted_ it, as he does here; but my definitions of _the tenses_ he copied without marring them much. The borrowing occurred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose _me_ the plagiarist.
OBS. 5.–Most of our English grammars have _more_ rules of syntax than are needed, and yet are very deficient in _such_ as are needed. To say, as some do, that articles, adjectives, and participles, _agree_ with nouns, is to teach Greek or Latin syntax, and not English. To throw, as Nutting does, the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on _such a rule of agreement_, is to choose disorder for its own sake. To say, with Frost, Hall, Smith, Perley, Kirkham, Sanborn, Rand, and others, “The nominative case _governs_ the verb in number and person,” and again, “A verb must _agree_ with its nominative case in number and person,” is to confound the meaning of _government_ and _agreement_, to say the same thing in different words, and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule: for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed, and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it.[325] To say, with Murray and others, “Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived,” is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed, or any of their errors corrected: those many grammarians, therefore, who make this their only rule for participles, leave them all without any syntax. To say, with Murray, Alger, and others, “Adverbs, _though they have no government of case, tense, &c._, require an appropriate _situation_ in the sentence,” is to squander words at random, and leave the important question unanswered, “To what do adverbs relate?” To say again, with the same gentlemen, “Conjunctions connect _the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases_ of nouns and pronouns,” is to put an ungrammatical, obscure, and useless assertion, in the place of an important rule. To say merely, “Prepositions govern the objective case,” is to rest all the syntax of prepositions on a rule that never applies to them, but which is meant only for one of the constructions of the objective case. To say, as many do, “Interjections _require_ the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, and the nominative case of the second,” is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand, and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend. Finally, to suppose, with Murray, that, “the Interjection _does not require a distinct, appropriate rule_,” is in admirable keeping with all the foregoing quotations, and especially with his notion of what it _does_ require; namely, “the _objective case_ of the first person:” but who dares deny that the following exclamation is good English?
“_O_ wretched _we!_ why were we hurried down This lubric and adulterate age!”–_Dryden_.