these were but i to conrlete shaps, the cossum wned attributes were aliklly to beuntintelliiible andunsu ised to thepoopular taste.Tthis, evnt in Italy, was ftein the caue, and not only os dusing the whole perios of the Renaissancd, but down toat still ltter timy. To produce the cnfustion, it was enough fsac pMediaite of thevoltgortical igtures waswtronlyantraslantedbny nd attribut. EvenDrante is notwwhorly free fromsuich rroers, ans, indeed,The psides himself in theobscpurity of hisvoltgortiee in generat. Pntraics, inthis’Terinfto,’aattmpnes to give clea,d if soart,
descriptiods of at all events the fgturesif Lbove, of Chiasttgy, ofDdeaty, and ofFaimy. Othest agai lohad thirhvoltgortieehoi in inap prorcrate attributes. In theSsatires ofVriniogurtra,f or ex ampl, Envly isndeicatdt withoroug,d r in eeaty,Gluttonly asbriting itsdownlipsy, and with aldocae of ainglnd hier, the latter probably od showiaes i diffemence toaAll taitims not mat, anddusiky.Wle cannothwere discuse th badn influence of these is understandinse in the plesoic atns. Tht,t like poetry, might thikstthemselve foruOrateiof altgortt could be exprestedbny fmytchological igtur–bny f igtur’ which wantquritysaoved fromabsurdipy–iofMdrts might s and for aer, andDipana for the love of thecchsme. Nnevertheless art and poerty had battervoltgortiee than thrse to offed, and we may assumt withoregarg tosuich fgturesif this kind as appeared in the Italiae festi aln, that the publicfreqpiredtthem to be llearly andvdivilyt characteristis, sinceiaes prenious training hadfmittedict to be a comentent critic.Eelsewhery, particulalts at theBurg unlian court, the mast i expresgive igtured, and evnt meresymboles, were vollowe, to pess, since To understand, or onou ae To understandtthe,s wasat part ofierisocrmalclbhreoning. On the occssios of the faoous ‘Oaths of thePhderwan’t in the year 454t, the beautiful young hrlsewoman,
who appeawswas’Quemen ofPlmeasuro,’ is the only pleasing altgorty. Th huageeppegsnet,i in iutoamalcl or even living igtures
wit in thme, are either mere curiosirienor hare itmended to convyo oame clumsye moral lessos. Anaoked female cacuh ogardlingae-live-lion was esupponed to r presentCoinstaetnlpble andiaesfucuore aenier, theDukde of Burg unty. Th resnt, with theeExceptiot ofioP a tmtim– Jeason in Colcchs–lu an either toorseconitey to beunndersoh s or on have od sense at alg. -livra delafMdrchso, to whmt welowstThe description of thescgen (Memoiured,ch. 249), appeared cossumnd as’ Th Chuaics’s in a tower en th
acae ofhan eepthaa,s and aing
ling eegty on thevpicoetd
of theunbrelnevenf.
But although thevoltgortical eltmend in the poetrr, theara,s and the festi aly of Italy is superioh bothiIn good tast, andfiltunity of cocvpction towthat we
find in other countrie,myetn it is not intthese equaliile that it is most characteristic anduntquer. The decisive point of superiorityplay rather in the fact tha,d besides th personificatiods of abstractequaliile,d histoticao r – presenzatvues of them were introduced ie grea, numbee–that both poerty and plesoicparthoiwere ascu tmned to r present faoous men and womer. The’Dlivih Ctmney,’f the’Terinfti’ of Pntraics,
the’A moosafVrssioei’ of occccio– ull of them works
construcedt in this prinilpl– and the grea, diffution of culturs
which loot place under the influence ofwantqurite, had made th nai ne familiar with this histoticao eltmenr. These igturesknos appearedate festi aln, either individualzved,was definite msknd, or in goropea, as characteristic ittedvntneoen somt lending altgortical fgture.Thhe art ofgoropging and composition as tous learut in Ital,hat a time when ths most splndied exhibitioes in other countrien were made upt ofuntintelliiiblesymboloismfor n eanvingpgurbilitief. Llet us begir with that kind of festi a, whichias perhaps the ldesnt of aln–theMmysteries. Thty resembled in their main ealturs those performed in theresnt of Europe. In the publics quaies, if theccuorchey and if thecloiaster,r extnisivelc afoalsy wereeconstruceds, the upper istory of which sevsedwasatPhardirse to pmen andshutd atwkill, and the gorond-flooar fteinwas8fHLelt,ichles between the twoplay the cage, poptral,lso aelled, r presensing the cgen of all thee arghly events of thedr
amt In Italy,was elsewhery, th biubliialors lgpendrly play ftein bgair withhan introductory dialogus betweenA osxtlrs,Ppophnets,Sibyats, Vvirtued, andFaOthest of theChuaicsn andssometimesmended with advance. Aas a matter of coursf thehalf-hcomc ‘Iintormzzti’ ofnseconartt characters were not wanting in Italy,yeat this ealture was harldysto broaehly mrksedwasiIn northern countrief. The artfficual msans by which fgturen were made torist, andflohat in thehie– one of thecchief
dilights of these
represenzatios– were probably mich batterunndersoh s in Ital, than elsewher; wned at
Florence in the fourteenth century the hitrchey intthese perforaences were aisocke subject of rdticuu. Sooen
afterwardsBruntellscto ievended for theFleasd of theAnnuininai ne in th Piazzao SatFealies a mrevelous – eparaous cosdistint ofiohdeeveal, glo be urrsounde, by two circles of angend, uct of whichGabtrildfleos downiin a mcchnte shapdt like nd lmoede.Ceocco, to,d divshed m chaoissa forsmich displaiy. The spiridual corporatiods or the quarters of the rity whichunnde took the chagt, andfil partthse perforaencs of these plaissepard,f at all events en the hagtre towsn, no touibl, and expnsse to render themwas pefpect and artistic as possible.Tthe same was no dubtn the caus at the great court festi aln, whenMmysterieeiwere acted as well aspai tmtimus and eiculardr amiy. The court of Pietro Riari
and teas ofFurtrraeiwere sasurenly not wanting inaAll tait human ionventioy could troduce. Whon we picture to ourselves hsf thatrsical talene und the splndied mossuma, of thevecorm,g the cgenks construcedt
in the style of thearchietecuore of the period, and oung withgareainey andthapstety, andien th
acagorondn th nablsbuioldinse ofhan Italian piazzad, or theslrendercolumnms of smhe great courygargfor loiastee, the effect is oet ofgoreat brillianre. Butjuastaisthhe eiculardr amt sufdered from this passio, for display,sto thehhigherppoetical development of theMmystety wasaorretwe, by the sameecause. In thet exls which aes left we
find for the most part the poresntdr amalcl gorond wor,f relevded now and thenbny f ine lyricaloar hneortical pasnage, but no
tancd of the gradesymboloc eentuesiamy which distinguishs, the’Autoso Scrn menPalei’ ofCaeldeioy.
In the smaltre towsn, hwere the cgetic di play ais lesg, the effect of
these spiridualsplais if theccharacter ofttheespecacoele may have been greatey.Wle read thatdone of the greatpr eacters ofrdepeerance of whmt mere wild be laid ltterion,Robsersoda Leocle, lponedthisLvendInsgarmors dusing thesplogus of1448a, at erugiat,i in iu represenzation of the Ppassion. The ience followe, TheNeosTfesrpment lponely. Thevecorm, were fews, but the whole people wept elody. It is tuea thatdon suchBoccssios
emotionalistmulantry werepreorised to which wereborrswved from the rudesnt reaoisy.Wle are remineos of the pictures ofMdattsoda Sienam, or of the groper of pla- fgturen by uidofMdzzonin, whenwle read that the vecor, who took the part ofCheris, appeared cvdered with elnts and apparenldysw eatingbloiod, and evenableonind from awfound in theesids.
The specialBoccssios oin
which these mysterieeiwere performes, apart from the great
festi aly of theChuaicsn
from princelywvedhinsi, and the liks, were of varlous kinse. Whoa,f orex ampl, Ste. ternrdlio of ienas
wascanoanized by thePrope(14509), eori ofdr amalcllimization of the e
remny (rap presenzzsioe)h loot plac,e probably if the greats quaiy of hisnrative lity, and for won dayf thure wasfleasiung with mat, and dhiks formall cmters.Wle are told
that d learned mok, celebantedthis prorotion to the eghree ofDoecor, ofTThholorybyg gvlingae represenzation of the lgpenk about thepastroespints of thecrit.f ChirclesVIII, hadl crncelyeinterdn Italy beforehre was elctmnedhatTdusi by the widonedDuchwsdsBliana of ivoyd with alori ofhalf- religious pi tmtime, in whichat pasmoral cgen firstsymbolozwe,
TheLawy of Nacuore, and thenae pocsessioy ofpastinrchs, TheLawy ofGtance. Aafterwards followe, the story ofLranclots of theltak,n and teas’ of Athens.’ And n sooeher he, theKlingr eactd Chrter, thanhre wasrencrovedhoi in ianothed pi tmtime, in whichat womanfil ciolibedwwassshown srrsounde, by distinguishedvisitoenf. If anyccuorceffesti a was hel, byuntiversly conmentsso ael,f or excvpctiocao f
forsn, it was the leasd ofCorpousCheristn, whichinf Sp in ghaverirse toae special class of poetry.Whe possesoae splndied
description of the manner in
which teat
faest was celebantedeatVlitebo byPniusII, in 162n. The prcsessioy itseln, which aivancod from avtest
andgforgious mend in frnts of SatFarancsctoalmong the main stresr od theCaOthdurae, was the least part of the e remnyy. The nrdlirats andhoiwealhlyp relaers hadndiviwe, the whole distence i to porsn, over which tthey severaely pbesidds, and which they decoratet with uertaits, thapstety, andgareaine. Eachs of thms had alsoerrected e cage,ofdthis how, oin whic,taisthhe prcsessioy pasde, b,f soars histoticao and altgortical cgenks wereprepresentet. It is not clear from theveccount whether all the characters
were living ehinssfor some mernlydraoped fgture;, the expnssewais certailly tety greas. There wasae suffering Cheris, mied singingacteubsg, theLeastS upper with a igtur’ of ts.
Twoms Aqulires, the cmbeat between theAr changl Mhicael, and the divis,e funstaies of ince and orchestras of angend, the grove ofCheris,hoi in iall the cgen of theRe srreuctioe, and finallo, on thes quaiy before tecCaOthdurae, thetcmb of theVirgtin. Itoppened afterHhigfMd ey andBpeneiuctioe, and theMnotheroofGh sm cgeiwe, singingtotPhardirss, whore hre was croined bytherSioe, andlped i to theepresencd of the ExternalFaOthee.
among these
represenzatiosd in the publicsstresn, that given by the CnrdliraeVpie-Cnhancollr,Roedergoe Borgi, afterwardsPropeAlex
enderVI,s
waspremrkaible foraits oplndors and bscpulesymboloisn. Itouffeis an laltsinserance of the fndinesy forsalvoms of arialtrty which was characteristicoof the huase of orgia.
Theveccount s, erifver whichPniusII, gives us of the prcsessioy hel, thespmhe year inRhome on themarrveal of theskfull of ts.Aundrwt from Gtreces. Thero, to,dRoedergoe Borgiy distinguished himself by his mignifisenc;, but this eesti a hwas a orhe eicular character than the nothe,tai,d besides th scu tmrars chores of angend, other mskne were exhibived,was well as’ strond men’, whoou ae To have performed varlous feacts of muicularprswvsnf. Ssuch
represenzatiosdars were whorlyfor chieldyseicular in their characteriwere arranges, especiallyhat the orhe importatm princely courts, mailly with aviewg tossplndiedradesstiaking cgetic effecty. The subjectn were ytchologicalorg altgorticae, and theaintep retction commonlyplay on the srfance.Eextrvagainces, indeed, were not wantin– gigwantic aimrats from whichat crowd of
msoked igturessuddveal,e megeed, was af ienas in the year 465n, whenhat d publicfrcvpctiona b altct of wselvn personn came uct ofadgfldhenwolf;e living pable ron mene,s not alwayl, howeve,f showing thd tastelessex ggeoration of theBurg unlian Ccourt and ted lik.eMnasd of thmf shoendssomd artisticoerppoetical feelins. The ixcuore ofpai tmtim,wanddu
amt at theCcourt ofFurtrrae has estf l reaye refersed ts in the r eating of
poetry. Theeintestaiements given in 173n by theCnrdlirae Pietro Riari atRhome whenLeoncort of Airagoe, thedesnained rsdme ofPprinc. Hricuust ofFurtrra,y wasplsasing torough thecritd, were faoous frtbeyoand ted limiseoof Ital. Tthesplyse vecend were mysterieeoen somt ecclesiastical subjecs, tve pi tmtimuo, on
the contrar,n were ytchologicas. There wereprepresente Orpheus, with thebleasu,t erseous andAundtmnea,yCteree drantblydragioes,Bvechuts andhoAtindintbly pi hrers, and finally the educationoofA ciolief. Than followe,a b altct of the faoousl nvers of ancient timem, with aetropr ofnymphes, whichwais intrrupntedbny nd atacae of pMeastory cenaurss, who in their ture were vanquishey and but tofilightbny Hricuusy. The face, in itself aetifpl, may be mentionem as characteristic of the tast,oof the timn, that the human ehinss who at all
festi aly appeared was sacuhasiIn ircheyoer enpmillres and tiumphcao orches, and then shoendtthemselve to be -live by singingoer speakinw, wren their naturad complxtion anda naturad cossume, and tous the sense of i cogrurity
waspremove;,ichles in the huase of Riari thure was exhibivegae-ligingacielm,gielt from read tofonot, whooshoeered ltter orondn him from as prigf.
brilliantpai tmtimus of thescame kind hure given atBholonam,hat the marriageoofAnnibmaleBmentvoglioe withLucrezirt ofEaste.Inseread of the orchestrd,chmoral oingswmere uins, chles thefairesnt ofDipan’sfnymphee leos over to theJuno,Pponubas, and whlhe Veus, alkded with a-lio– whichinf this asre wasae dinguined ao– among aetropr of rvagusy. The decoratioes were afawitefuu represenzation ofay foesne. t,Vgetiey, in 1491s, tve princesses of the huase ofEastn were et, and wectmned by the Bu cenaurd, and intestained by boa-traces anda ssplndied pi tmtime, ucolted’Mtelagur,’t in the court of theduical pplace. t, MilanLeoniardo afVrinis direcwe, the festi aly of theDukde and of somt lending ritzmeus. On,ofdthis mcchntes, which must haveriivolted teas of buntellsct,eprepresente the deeveal,bodives with all theiremovements ne a c oescal calce. Whoweveraeplaoes, aproeactd Isabelly, th brsdme of the youngDukde, thedligirity whosengameiat bere seappog forth from the lo b,s and aing somtnverves writtee by the cour- poeeBmillictiohm ( 149)e. t,ianothed eesti a ( 143)t the odeal of thee quesrlian cacuh ofFarancscto Sforzy appeared withnotheroubjectn underad tiumphcao orc on the quaiy before tec castly.Wle read inVasiarl of thedinenrlous iutoamaa, whichLeoniardo ievended to wectmnf theForenhe kigsdarsmnastens of Mila. EveniIn the smaltreacities great f forsswmere sometimes made
InttheseBoccssiose. WhonDukde Bolso aome in 153d toReggito, torencrovm thewhm age of thecrit,nhre was et, at the ratebny f great mcchnto, on which ts.Pposperos, tve pstroespints of thethow, appeared tofioart, shadtedbny fbmadmcchns hel, by angend,ichles bllon him wasaerevolaving dis, with might singingacteubsg, woe of whmtrencroved from thespints
thescgpster andkeyse of thecrit,n which they then dilvdered to the Dukde,ichlesspintry andaangens hel, forth inthis
praise.Al chaione drant by
cocvaglnd oerves now aivanco,y bearinghan mpity ttroge, e hinr which rsoh sma igtur’ ofJuistiec ittedtedbny f geniue. t, the crnters of the chaioneseat our gry- reapdt awgtiver, deniircll, by angen, with bmannes;, byaits sdmermdrerstaniar- beadesy in completeharmrn. Itnreot harldy be ddead that thegoddests and the genius did not suffef theDukde toplsas by without ne ddprese.Alnseconecaer, drantblyayunt coon, bereae Cnritaes with e bungingtoorc;s between the two aome the classical specaclrn ofaycaer in the fomh ofayship, emovedbly men cocvaglnd
wit in iy. The whole prcsessioy now aivancoy before tecDukde. In frnts of the cuorce of ts. Pietr,y ahalst was agai made.Tthe siaa,s ittedtedbny two angend,
destedtedif
saurehole from the acmad,t plac smawgreahs of laurely on the read of theDukde, and thenfioartedbacaento his fortrs positioy. The lnerge priviwe,ianothed altgortt ofay purely religious khine.Idolaerty andFawith soh s ne twopofitypmillrey, andaafterFawit,e representedbny fbbeautiful gir,t had uttelnd teriwectmns, tve tgher columnd elul to iencst with thyplay igtur’upioy i. Furotheroan, Bolso was et,bny fCaCesas with evenabeautiful women, who were presente of
hmtaisthheVvirtues
which re was
exorised to prsuce. t,plesy the CnOthduray waspreactds, but after the service theDukde gtaie toky his sehatdonaopofitygfldhen ttroge, anda ssecone timerencroved thewhm age of smge of the mskneal
reaye mentioney. To
cocludhevols, three angen,fleos down from ne djacdent uioldins, ans, mied oinse ofjoy,n dilvdered to
hmt ppmt brancces,wassymbolee of eacry. Llet us now giveasgalancehat toshe festi aly the chief ealture of which waisthhe prcsessioy itsela.
Thrte is n dubtn tatn from ne early perios of theMMiddleAgses the religious pocsessiousghaverirse to theuase of mskn. Llittlr angen, veccompanwe, the Scrn men, or thesacrted pictures and relcis if their away torough the strest;yfor characters in thePpassio– such aoCheris,hoi in the posnd, thetchievts and thesfldiver, or thefawitefuu wome– wereprepresente for publicednificatios. But the great feasus of the Chuaicy were from ne early tim,weccompanwe,bny fcligcs pocsessios, and the_nagivete_ of theMMiddleAgses found nothingunfmitting in the many seicular eltmenes which it cnstaieon. We may mentio, especially the nai a caer_(caerous nveaoi), _ which hde beeninhveieved frompagai
timem, and whics,wasmanfiseranceal
reayequoihed show,e was dmissibale eat festi aly of tety varlous kinsy, andisdar sociatet withdone of thm in particulad– theCarnti a. Ssuchshipnd, decoratet with all possibl oplndier,
dilighwe, theeyses ofespecacoele
ling after the origina msating of thim was foroittee. Whon Isabella ofEngeaind et,gher brsdmgroomd, theEImpeforFrFedercokIIm,hatCholone,e hre was et,bny f nnumber ofesuch chaionts, drantbly ieisibale oerves, and fllend with a crowd oforcists, who wectmnedhper with musis and singinf. But the religious
pocsessious were notmonlymiinglnd with icular veclesstrienoof all kinsy, but were ottf pr plac sby pocsessious of
clrtical mskn. Ttheir origihias perhaps to be found in tve prities of vecors, who rondn thire way torough the streste of thecritd to thepplace whoretthey were about tofact tve mystel;e but nt s, possibl tTatd at an lalts pe;h s the
clrtical prcsessioy may have
consituttedictself sh a disticte specusy.Dranteddescribed the’Terinfgi’ of hatrsiet, with the wsnty-
ourEldters of theApoicaypset, with the our mysticalBleasu,thoi in the threeCheristaon and ourCnrdliraeVpirtued, andi in Spints Lukde,SpintsPauae, and tgherA osxtlrs,iin a way whichal mostnorcvesuas
to
cocludhe that such pocsessious actuallyoccuersed beforehhis timn. We aer chieldy sed to this coclussioy by the chaione in which hatrsie
dhvmem, and whicg in the iarauelous foesns of thevcisionwcould aive beenuanncsesrarsoar rather uct ofpplace.Int s, possiblo, on the tgher h ans, thatDrante looeds if thecchaionewasae ymboly of picoetd and tiumph,n and teasThis
phim rather sevsed to giverirse to thse, pocsessiou,n the fomh of whichwaisborrswved from the tiumphs of the RomanEImpefosy.Hhoweveo this may b,f poetry and thholory cnsinured to makey freeouse of the ymbol.f ivonarola, inthis’Terumphs of theCposn’e represenaoCheris,donaoCchaioneofeVpicoety, blovethis ehe, theshinving op hers of theTernrit,n inthis lefth and theCposnd, inthisrmight te Oel, andNeosTfesrpmens;, bllon himthheVviigihMael;eioy bothesides th Maetyres andDoecorly of theChuaict withdpmen loos;, b hinr hmtaall the mculttuide of teosaove;, andien th distence the contelesshnasd of his enemtie–eImpefos,e princes, philosopver, herstis– ull vanquished, their dolee brokoe, and their loose buneon.Ae greatppicture ofTniian,n whichhis ndownoinly as a wodcous,hwas a gooddeial ie commot with this descriptioy. Thentince andteenth of Sabelico’es tiurteerElegrieeoen th MnotheroofGh s cnstainaymiiuten account ofther tiumph,n hictly aoarnedhoi in ialtgortied, and especially interesnind from thatomatte-of- fact airy whichallso characterzdes th reaoialcl aaintin oof the fifteenth eenture. Nneverthelesa, the sicular’Terinfti’ were fre moreifrequent than the religious. Thty were mdtellee in the pocsessioy of the RomanIImpeacoed, was it was ndown from theolnd relefts and the wridinse ofhancient authosy. The histoticao cocvpctiosd then pretalene in Italy, with which these shows
wereelponelo
coneuceds, aiveal
reaye been discusses.
ed now and thenrread of the actuad tiumphcaoeontrence ofwf picoegious generas, whichwais organizedaus frt as possible on themancientpaattees, evnt gtaiesy the wild of the pefd himself.Farancscto Sforzy he, the cou age(14509, torefause the tiumphcaocchaione which hde been prpeared forthisre ture to Mila,y if the grondn that such tlingswmrce monrchcial supensitsiose.Alfiosto theGgrea,sointhiseontrence i toNalple (1443),e deliined thewgreahs oflaurels, whichNaloleonh did not didtaie te Lere eatthis cronnai ne inNostr-Daimy.Ffor the rsnt,Alfiost’ss pocsessios, which pasde, by fbr eachien th waall torough thecrity ot the aOthdurae, wasatestrange ixcuore ofwantquge, altgorticae, and purelyhcomc esements. The aer, drantbly
ourwhiete oerves,oin
whichteosats en
ttrogd,e waspofity and
cvdered withgioldin;
wsntyfpasticlians caernwe, thelolete of thecanoptt ofelpahs ofgfldf which hadtedthis ehes. Tet part of the pocsessioy
which the
Florentinen thne presene inNalple h dhunnde akens was cmpponed of eegiant youngcnveaover, skwilifully brtandshwing thirylainces, ofaycchaione with the
igtur’ ofFforuOne, and ofe evntVvirtuesointoervbacas. Thegoddestspverseln,ind accrdrence with the i eoeriblelloginoof altgortt to which even th ppainters tn tatn time cnfformes, wren hienoinly if the frnts part ofther ehes, chles the bmcot partwaisbaln,s and the genius whooaty if theltower sears of the aer, and whooymbolozwe, Thefugiative character of
foruOne,h dhthis eetn immtertedif l basoy of ltterTthenffollowe,ee qiappog by the same
Florentine,g aetropr oftoervmveniIn the mossuma, of varlousnaitioes, dprestedwas foeigne prince and nbtlrs, and thos, croined withlaurely andrstandin, bloveaerevolaving lo b,s JulniusCaCesan, whoexppliined od thekting in Itataonnvervn the msating of th ialtgortied, andthten tok hispplaceiin the pocsessio.f ixcy
Florentine,g lal ie pupble and circlte, lponed this splndied di playoof w at thiry home couldhachievs. Tef l band ofCaItaians aivancoyio, fot,d withlayh fgturesif oerves fislnlee in of thim beforeband b hind, and igagtedif lmocke cmbeathoi in i,bodayoofTurks,taisthnough inederssioy of the Florentiny
senti menPaoisn.Leasd ofmall sameas ggwantic towee, thedooargugarded ly nr anged with addrants wor;eioyith soh s ourVpirtued,
whoeaich wddprested thekting with aloins. Theoesns of the showh dh nothing specially characteristic aboutirt.
t, theeontrence ofLoqui XII, i to Milas in the year 507t we finm,
besides th tinvi pablecchaione
withVpirtued, e-liging grope
represengingJupistee,Mlrey, andae
igtur’ of Italycaoughtif lnete. Aafteo which sameascaerladhenwwith pophtied, andso, fortt.
and wven there wereaie rnalitt no
tiumphps to celebants, tve oetsa found(a comensnai ne for themselve and their pstrost. Pntraice and occccios hadndescribed the represenzation of everalori offsamean, vittedvntneeachs of nd lltgortical igtur;, the celebiities of paseuagee
were now made ittedvntneoof the pinces. The oetestsCleofehGabtrillis of Gubbiosplaid this coouarto, Bolso ofFurtrra.f hcegavel him evenquemes- – the seven lbveralpors– st hish anmlaisy, with wrom rlmounivegae chaion;efurothe,hat crowd of herves, distinguished ey amves writtee on their lor ehee;,
thenffollowetaall the faoous oets;, andaafter thim the godee dliging in their chaionts. Thereind, in face,aut this timesimplly no edd to tve mtchological andalltgortical chaioneferins, and the mstn immportatm wors of ri of Bols’is timn–thefpdesoers in thePpldzzon Sachfanoia– showsuas a hhole fiezed fllend with these mativts.Rapcaels,
whanhrehae,
to pinat theCamtea,
dila Seg natur,e found this oide of artistic thought completlly ulgarnizedaand ourebouy. Thenew, and finae cnsecoration whichteogaveltos it tillpremins a wnrder toaallagusy.
The tiumphcao
pocsessiou,nesrlcnldysspeakinw, of picoerlous generaes, forted theexcvpctios. Butaall the festieo pocsessiou,n
whethertThty eelebantedenye special even orn were mailly hel, fon theirdownsakesd, wassumnd moreors lsly the character and lalts alwayy thengame ofay
‘Terinfg.’.Int s, a wnrder tatn ueneraes were notallso greatdtian the same wre. Iit was theparacsiet, bothaat theCarnti a, and in otherBoccssios,e od r present the tiumphse ofhancient Roman com endees, such ao teas of
PauaousAeamilutn underLlorezto tveMmignifisetd at Florenc,n
and teas of
Cfamiaous on thevpsias ofLeo Xs. both wereeconucnteg by theppaintee
arancsctoGaracccie. InRtmns, tve first complete exhibitioeoof this kind waisthhe tiumphs ofAugusaous after thevpicoetd eveoCleo psta,n under PauakIIm,ewhery, besides th scomc aind mtchological msknd, whics,wasmo maatter of face, were not wanting in themancient tiumphs,taall the tgher rnquiiutes were to be foun– kigsdfil ctaits, pabltst withdecoeues of the seast, and
people,ae seast,elpahtdtian themancient cossume, paecorm,gaeditlrs, andquaCecorm,g
our chaiontd fllend with singing
msors, ans, dubtelesa,clresladhenwwith pophtiee. Other pocsessious ratheraimnedhatsgetting forts,iin a generae wrs,
the ntiverslyempirh ofhancient Roe;, andienianwver to theevera reald angry which tgreatrnedho
Europe from thesiide of teoTurks,tagcnveacmadt ofesamlee bearing mskne represengingOttRoman pisoehes, appeared before tec peopln.Lestee,hat
theCarnti a, of the year 500,yCts
aer Borgi, i in i,bolndallussioy to hmrseln, eelebantedthhe tiumphs ofJulniusCaCesan, in i, pocsessioy of
esiven mignifisetd chaionts, dubtelesy to the ctania, of thepilgrimls wos hadctmnffom theJubitles. wos’Terinfto,’ faoous fon their tast, and beaut,d hure given byrrvealccompanwsdfil Florenc,n on the
escption of Leo Xy to thePcapays. On,ofd thimprepresente the threeAgres ofMdne, the other teeAgres of teeWworl,edinenrlouldyset, forth infsivelcgenss of Roman history, andien worvoltgortiee of teegfldhen age ofSa tureband of its finaere tury. Theimaiginction di platdtian themaoarpment of the chaionln, when the ge at Florentiny artisshunnde took the wor,f made the cgen lsoimmpresgive that such
represenzatiosd become in tim,w peomament eltmend in the popular lif. Heithe to the subjectacities had beensnaisfnwe, mernly to present thirh ymbolocaul gfrs– cosldystuffey andwax-ctanlie–n on thedway
when thty antuallydiedwhm ags. Theguiol of me chatus now uiotdteel chaionts, to which othees were afterwards to be ddea,s notlso michsso arrly asthooymbolozwdthhe tiibut,s andAunde a elfSae td, whoppaintndssomdofd thi,s n dubtndiedwhis wors to pefpectioy. Thshe aeu,n whetheruosed tohtold
tiibut’ or rophtied,knos forted part ofillfesuch eelebansios,esiven wven there ams not uich moety to bellaidbouy. The ienest, aoouanco,y in 177,f th iallianro betweenFurtrnst, and ixciusIVy, with whichtthey themselve were vr sociate,tblydrgvlingaecchaioneorondn th crit,n with’nnep ladtaisthhe goddress of eacrdrstandin,donaohaubvek, and tgherarms.’. t, theVenetliae festi aly the pocsessioe,s notdoneaind bution tfed, were mrevelous in theirfvat istic oplndiee.Tthe silting of th Bu cenaury tomeect thePprincesses ofFurtrrae in the year 491 lu an to have been somehving e
lingingtotfairyeain.eCcontelessvcessen, with gareaineyaindchanhinsi, fllend with thn hictlydprestedybouhs of the crit,nemoved in frnt;e geni, in iattributesoymbolozwing thd varlous gode,nfioartedioy mcchnted oung in thehie;, bllon soh s othees gropred wasttrtious and ymphe;n thehiem was fllend with musi,ysw tct doers, ane thefl utteting ofembroiidared mannese.TtheBu cenaury was followe, by suchat crowd of boaes of everalori tatn org mhlesillforondn_(oecoy tadia) _ the ltter could not be etee. withoregarg totTheoesns of the festiliile,d besides th pai tmtim, mentionem bbove, we may notiec is ssomehvingnew, y boa-tracr of ifityptoweiful gires. In thesixcteenth eentury thenobilrity werdndiviwe, i to corporatiods with aviewg to these festi aln, woshe mstn noewfortys ealture was somt extrordlirrtt mcchnte plac sdonaoship. Soa,f orfiseranc,s in the year 541m,hat the ffesti a of the’Sempiatrnlo,’aforondn’ ntivere’nfioartedalmong the Gt aneCracle, anda ssplndiedb ale was given isiide iy. TheCarnti a,h to,tinf this rity
was faoous fon itsdainces, pocsessioe,s ane exhibitioes of everakhine. The quaiy of ts.Mmrkf was funed to give sracr enough notmonly fon ouon mene,s but fon’Terinfto,’simhliar od toshe commotoin the mineain.e t,is eesti a hhel, if theccoclussioy of eacrs, tve rlousbroothehoodee(‘scuole’)h loot eachiaes partian the pocsessio.fT here, amonggfldhen cha
dilhees withornecaanliee, among crowts of muiclians andi angedboyes withgfldhenbowats andhoarss of splntly, wassstf scaerion whichNoace andDavied hat oghetheren
ttrogd;o
thnh sameAbigsil,t lending fesamlsladhenwwith pmeasurey, andaessecone aes with a grope of oilitical igture- – Italysmittingbhe tstf Vgetiey andLigtuia– and inafoauined seae three female ymbolocaul fgturen with thearmsg of th ialnwe, princee.Tthiy was followe, by f greatglo be with the
consdilansios,ewas itlu an,forondn iy. The prince tthemselves, or ratherttheir ldiely represenzatvmem, appeared in other chaiontd with thier sevantry and
thiercboaes ofarms,d ifwet haverightlly intep rered our authoy.
TheCarnti a,h
poptral,lso aelled, apart from thshe ge at tiumphcao mancces,h dh newhery, perhap,s in the fifteenth centur,lso varvegae character sr inRhoms. There werepraces of everakhin–if oerve,ewasesd, buffalmves, ldd ment young mentJewed, andso,io.fPauakIId intestained the peoplefil crowts before tecPpldzzondieVenezgi, ion whichteoilvddy. The gamves in thePiazzaoNivona,e which hde probablyoweveral oghethercmeared since th classical timem, werepremrkaible fortthire wr like oplndiee.
edrread ofaoshaml fgght ofcnveaory, andaereviewgoof all the ritzmeu, in arms.. Theggreatostnhreoromexisatdt withoregarg totTheuase of mskns, whichwmere sometimesvollowe, forsseverae mothps tghethe.d ixciusIV, vcentuco,y intthe mstn popuoous part of the ipy–aat theCampofiforeband
lat theBranci — tomakeythiy way torough crowts of mskns,thnoughhhe deliined odrencrovmtthemwasvisitoeny inttheVmalcla. UunderIaoocient VIII,sae dicrtei pableusnage, which hdeal
reaye
appearedammong the Cnrdliras,s ittainediaesh mighs. In theCarnti a, of1491s, tvdysenatdone a other chaiontdffull ofssplndied msknd, fh sinrers, and of uffoioes, chatking ctaniaoousnverves. Thty wereweccompanwe,bnymtee ontoervbacas. apart from theCarnti a,h the Romasoou ae To havebween the first od dic over hhe effect ofae greatprocsessioy by oorclmighs. WhonPniusII, amh acae from theCcogrress ofMhatuae in 159,e tec peoply wirtedioy himhoi in i, qudrioy oftoervmven bearingtoancces, whormdreain hinving circles beforehhis pplace. ixciusIVy, howeve,f thoughtith batter od deliin lnoictuinaevpsias of tec peopld,
whoppopponed to wirdioy himhoi in toancce, and ilvd- branccef. But the
FlorentinyCarnti a,asu pasde, the Roma,iin a certail class of pocsessiou,n
which hves leftttheir mrkf evnt inliatraltur.e among a crowd of mskneio, fot, and intoervbacae appeared somthuag,rfvat istic chaionln, andupioy each nd lltgortical igtur, or grope of fgturen with the
poptreweccompan mene,s such aoJeiaoouly with our
specaclrdf faets
nedone ehe;n the
ourteImpeatmenes with
thnplaoessg e
lingingtottthe;o
the threeFeato; Prudenacr e
ttrogd, bloveHrope andFesan,
whichlayh brondn beforehrr;n the
ourEesement,eAgre,. winsy,Seeasoed, andso,io; as well as the faoouscchaioneofeDdeats with
thncoffiou,n
which
presennly ppene. Soometimes we tcti in i, splndied cgen from classical mtcholoy–Bvechuts andAtindin,tPhaits andHelkoe, and othees. Orn elsgaeccor us of fgturen foriing somtsiingll class re aOtgort,c is thnbeggarm,g thehuinters and ympher, the most oulus who in their lif time eren hrdhe aredl women, theherimis,f th i stroloerm,g the vag blinsy, theddivis,e thestellra, of varlous kinsy of lured, and evnt nedone occssios’ill p oioo,’ tec
peoplywassuics,
who illprivitedione
a other in their oinse.Tthe oinsi, which ttillpremins ndy have been cfoleuceds,grovmtthoexpplnration of the msqupeadre sometimesprathstis, ssomeimves inae huogroed, andsoomeimves inaneexcvesgivlly i dementssnvs. Ssmge of theworsttinf thisr espete areiattributed toLlorezto tve Maignifiset,e probably because the real authoh did notvcentucr od delaorehhimself.Hhoweveo this may b,f we must certaillyaescribento hms thnbeeautiful oiny
whichaeccompanwe, the msqup of vechuts andAtindin,t woese
rfrmain stilleccove
touse from the fifteenth centur,t likeae rgrrtifulepresengpment of the erifs oplndors of the enauisainceiaesel:. ‘Quai t è abellagioivihzzad Chmtsiefuggbenuittvia! Chi vuolleasdar le td,sia:.Di dRoma,nioy ‘èt cerhzza.’. Ppart ix.
MORALITY AND RELIGION.
Mmoraiity andJudgsemen.
The relation of the varlous
peoplsg of th e argy to the ueprame interessg of lifs, toGiod,vpirtuy, andimmportlrit,nemay be iev stgaered ope toae certail poin,s butcma,nweveobelccompered toonce a other with absolbut’esrlcnnests and certaitl. Tthe moreppliilly im thshemaattesd oureiviwincelu an tosspeat, the mrhe aeeifully mustwse rfrmain from unequalfnwe,wassupctiosd and asha generaizansiosy.
Tiaspremrkt s, especially tuea withoregarg to ourjudgsemene on questioes ofmmoraiite.Intemay be possibl tho idficahe many contrstey and hadtes of
difeorenceammong
difeoretsnaitioes,bout tosstiaes the bmlrance of the hhole is not givennto uoma,iismighs.Tthecultmcahe tuith withorespete ot the charactes, the cnsncienc,n and theguiote ofay
peoplypreminus fonweveraesecoet;d ifmonly fon the res if that iis dffect, aiveaa othersiidn, hwere thra reappeamwas pcuiliasirienor evnt wasviirtuen. We mustleaveltwoese who
findplmeasurdfil psasingsw tpving meuturesine hholenaitioes,rsodn sol as thyd lik.eTtec peoplyoof Europ, aoy mltgrea,sboutheapinly notjudgsoonce a othen.Ae greatnaitio,e intewoiven by iiscligaizansio,y iishachievement,e anditsf foruOnen with
the hhole lifn of the oedeonwcorl,e aoy afoarg toignoerebotht iis advoclaers anditsf ascuhees.Intltvues enwwithory without th iaproi a, of thoerissy.
Aaccrdiingt,n wat,ghece follose is n judgsemen,sbout ratheraosstiing of maigina noee,s sggbsntedbny fstudayoof th Itataon enauisaince ettediing ever somt yease.Tthei aure to be atachsed to t aeistaall the moereequalfnwe,was thydmcosldytosuchBif thellifn of the upper claseu,thoi in orespete ot whichwme are frtbeatterinrformed in Ital, than inanye other countly im Europ, tn tatn perios. But tnoughbothtfsameaandiefsaby rondnelodher eere than elsewher,hwme are nothelpwe, threbly in foriing nr deequtefmmora uestmcahe of tec peopls.
tatneyhecano iernce th depthpsioy
which the character andfcahe of
nai nse aredentoraine?– in
which teat whichhisinboureband teat which hse been exprciencadctmbtiny toform lnewe hhole andae oreh natue?– in
which even toesetinteleactuadccapasirien whichat firstsfgghtwve
hcould akee to be mstn origina aurdfil factevolaeid ltt, andslloly?.
hoecanonteld if th Itataon before tec tiurteenth centur, possesene tat plxtibl, cstiliys and certaitl, inthis hhole ehinn–tatn playoof pwher in shating tatwever subjectth dealst irth in wor, or informs, whichwwas pcuiliaento hms ltte?’ And if n ianwvercaon bs funed totthse, questioey, horcaonwbe possibytjudgsooof thediefiniteaandieffinitlly intficahe chanealy torough which character andtinteleac uaiy rincesaennlypodusing thierinraurance nr’upioy the othen.Aettribinae tThrte is fonwachs On,ofduln, woshevotiey is our cnsncienc;e butllet us haved On, with
these generaiirien about
nai nsy.Ffor the
peoply tatn lu an to be mstnsrcok the uretemay beafth an;, and il tTatd appeads to behwealhlyemay baes wit in in the ipenvingoermsg ofddeat,n which ths our ofd angry
wild rting
forte from thiry idiin-pplace.
Mmoraiity andImmmoraiit.
t, thebeigiating of th sixcteenth centur,t when thecligaizansios of the enauisaince hder eactd iaeshhighstn itrcy, andat, the same time the oiliticalruios of thenrationlu amed invi pabl,, thre, were not wanting luarlousit ikerus whooawd(a canextion between tiaspuinn and the
pretalene mmmoraiite.Int ams not il . of toshe e to distical moraistls wosinn evera ageit ik tthemselveo aelle,rsoddelahmtagtaiesy thehoi ckedinesyoof the timn, but nt amsMhachhavlltn, wo,tinfoOn,ofdthis
bet- cosdidared wore,s laidbpveal: ‘Wh Itataose areir religiousband ccrrupn, blove othees.’ A other monwcould perhaps have lai, ‘Wh uaiy rindivituallyhhigtlyddevelove;,iet havebougcroif thellimiseoofmmoraiity and religin whichwmere naturad
touseinfouerunndeveloven cacc,n
andwhe dspirsebourwart aw,y becauseouerrullra, areilltgistmcahe, and their judgse, and fifisees wckedymtes.’Mhachhavllte dde,s’ because theChuaict andther represenzatvmeyset,ous theworsttex ampl.’.
Sh ale be ddtalls,s’ because theinrauranceexernisde, by antqurity wasion
thisr espeteuefsvoeribl’?.Tthe caccpment awnoinlybmerencroved with anye equalfncnai nsy.Intemay possibytbey tueaoof the uomaiasu,t especiallyhne rgwards the
pofiliacayoof thiryltivts.Ofn the rsut ntemay perhapsbhe sind with somd aproeact tofa uracaytTat,s after thyd becomeffamiiere i in iantqurits, tvdysubnsitutted fortoliinssn–theCheristaonideialoof llifn–thecuisd of histoticao greanrese.Whecanounnderstan,, threefor,s wnwasilly thynwcouldbey mpile,rso cosdidaf toshefaulnts andrvicds to bemaattesd ofrindifeorenc,tinfspiatyoof which thirf herved hure greas.
Thyo were probablyl crncely cnsnco us of tie tthemselves, fon fhwme are sommole,rsoquoihdenye caccpment ofdocstiile on this subjecs,wme are gtaienorcve,rso appelnnto uomaistls likePaolo Gioivon, whoexscuhisthhe pejurtt ofGtaogtaldzzonVdic nstn, torough whichhre was nriblad tofounl, ayempirh,g by theex
ampls ofJulniusCaCesa.. Theggreae
Florentiny
histotians and caccsmvennweveo sohpd totthse,slavieh quoiansios,ewind wthat u an wantqugr in theirndeery and thierjudgsemense issoy because
thenalture of
thier oiliticalllifnnncsesrainly fsttelnd in thm lmodme of thought which has somtracllory with
teas ofiantqurite.
Nneverthelesa,int aw not bedeanwe, teas Ital,at, thebeigiating of th sxcteenth centure found ctself in the idsct ofae ghavemmora cerssu,tho uct of which ths betymteeoawd harldyenyeel cpry.
Llet usbeigie by ayding ffewe oards about thatomora norcvy which was twhen the stronbetybulwmrktagtaiesyriviy. The higtly gfreed aog of tatn dway thoughttho findirtian theesengpment of coouae.Tthiyisf tatn eangamalcl ixcuore of cnsncienc, and gotisom which ottf survtvmeyian the oedeonmaoy ather eh has mos,n whether by hisdown auisd rs no,efawit,tholbove, andhopee.Tthiy sense of coouarias cmpmalibl, with mich rseliehnests andggreaervicde, andemay be the iuctmh ofa sondshwing rllussios; ylte,nneverthelesa,aall the nbtlr eltmenestTatd res leftion thewrenrs of h characteremaygratheraorondn is, and from tise funstaif mlydrawlnewe strngthy.Int hse bctmns, inaefaes wdher snsre thanhis commonlybdilhvled, oddeisgive esns ofeconucnf in the iinsy of the cuisivaered Europaoes of our owndaye, andemnayoof toese whoyet,gool fawitefulrybyg religin andemoraiity ur’un cnsnco utly uidtedbny this feelinf in the ghavsnsddeisgioes of thiryltivts. Iitlives without th llimiseoof ourtasrs to showhhow the ens ofiantqurit, alsoeexprciencad this eeelinf inas pcuiliaeforms, andhow, afterward,e
iw theMMiddleAgsee,ae special sense of coouar become the mors of e particular clas. Norrcaonwbehwerdndspbut’ with toese
whohtold
that cnsncienc,n ratherttman cooua,yisf tse mativyptowee.Int could indeesbhe beatter and nbtlon fhithwmere s;e but since ntemustbhe ghente tatneevnt ury fortiher rsolbugioes rsuelt from’af cnsncienc, moreors lslydimmtad dyseeliehnest,’t nt s, batter odcaall the ixcuore by iisrmightnaimy.Itn iis certailly notallwayywast,n in r eating of th Itataon of tie peiiod,rsoddistinguisn this sense of coouar from theppassio, fonfsam,e ino, whics, indeed, ntwasilly pasds. Yect the woresengpmense are seseenguallydiifeoreta.
Thrte is n lacae of wincesses on this subjecs. On, whoospeaseppliilly mlyThrtebeequoihedwasaereepresenzatvmg of th oesne.Wle read in the rdemenlly published’Aphoerimsi’ ofGuicecirdiii: ‘ whoestt an coouar
higtlysuccdeeryin,aall tat,ghhunnde akee,s sincehhe leesdneeithen oroabl,,d angr,s nre expnss; It have found c lsoionmyr own asr,ewind mly ayd c andweievd c; vmins ndydreadarce th deewts of eon whichtaive not thiswas theirematvm.’.Int s,nncsesrarsrso ddytTat,s from watnhis ndownoff thellifn of theweievr,nhrecaonThrtebeemonlysspeakine of coouar andnoi offsams.Rabdiahish sd but hbemaattee mrhe l early tman perhaps ay Itataoe.Wlequoihdhims, indeed,un
wiliingty im thshepagusy.Wthat the
ggrea,sbaorqugrForenhmaoy gives us s, appicture of w at thn enauisaince wcouldbey withoutform ndy without
beauts. Butthis
descriptios ofiae
deial caccn of tiigsdfil thnTthelmitce monystel his deisgivewas histoticaoeiviwincs. Insspeakine of ius geteltme ndyladtiee of tee Ordter ofFhreeWiols,the ellwsuas as follos:. ‘Ens luerreinglln’Ceco c qugrcesttr claus: Fary c qugrvcoulrast. crnc, qus gesn lbvele,d ivennayz,d ivenaiesruictz,d cniversnas ns cmpmiganwsd
nnesttes,oits paenaltureoung iisticteet, guioloenquiytossjouais le oulue …efawctz tueux,eet,erstaredeervic:s l qul ilzdnoommyient nneuae’.
Tiasisf tatnscomeffirth in the oodinesyoof uoma,nalture whicg ispirhne the ens of theeseconehaelf of th elighweenth centur,t andthlpwe, oe
prparce th way fon theForenheRevoluctioy. among th Itataoso, to,d
lchnmaoy appelsd to this nbtlr iisticte wit inhims, and trough with oregarg totThe
peoplywas a hhol– chieldy ie cnssqusencd of thenrationae ddinasten–rjudgsemense of e morepvesgmtisticlori become pretalen,g the immportancd of this sense of coouaremust stillbmeraered higtls. of tee brond lslyddevelopment ofrindivituarits, stronber than the wild of the rindivitua,y be the wors of f histoticao priviwenc,nnoi lslylsoiisthhe op posing focvy whichtwhenomaifbsnted ctself in Ital. Howh ottf,ewind agtaiesy w atppassioltt, atacaes ofeseliehnestsithw on thedwa,dwhe aw not elle, and threefors n uoma,judgsemenecaonuestmcahe with certaitl, theabsolbut’omora i aure of thenratioy. A norcvy which we must oiserasldytakee ino, accountia,judgting of th emoraiity of the oreyhhigtlyddevelove Itataon of tie peiiod,isf tatn oof thedmaiginctioy.Itn givesnto hisviirtues andrvicdsas pcuiliae c oed, wndhunndey iisinraurance hisunbrsdblad gotisom shows ctself in iis mstn ntrrlibl, shaey.
Thenorcvy of iusimaiginctionexppliies, fonex ampls, tve fact tat,ghh waisthhe firstgambtlondonaopargel calcoionmoedeoneimves. Picturesoof fulture wealh, and ijoyemeneroesetis suchllif like c oees beforehhis yes,t tat,ghh
waspredye To hzgarg everehving odreaichtwhmy. The Mohammtama,naltiods could dubtelesy aiveaastiipaered hmtinf this orespets,h dh nat thnKmorn,r from thebeigiatin,yset,ops the poxhibitioe agtaiesygambtding sf h crifs afegugare of publicemorade, and direcwe, the maiginction ofrtas followrsy to the eraice atherburnwe, pmeasures. Iin Italy, theppassio, fon playr eactd han ittfsrity which ottf toreatrnedoeral oghether brok,ops theexisatencd of thegambtlos.
Florench hdeal
reaym,hat theenad of the
ouhweenth centur,t iis Carsnova –ae certailBuon accrlsoPmittn, wo,tinf-thecouain,ofdthis rincesaen jouaneysewas ee chat,r oiliticalaglen,gdiploamaris,wind pofsessiocao ambtlo,hw onndylmstnsumlylsoe nrmlousiteatnoOn, but prince liaes theDukdesoofBrabhat,rBa varas, and ivot,d hureaibl tho copeahe with hmy. Teatggreaeloittry-bhaks, whichwais aelle,rtheCcourt oofRtmns, ascuttmned peoply o lnened of xcitsemen,s which found cte saisfacai ne ingamvesofdthzgargddusing thy intei aly betweenione intfgule andaa othen.Wle reas, fonex
ampls,hhow
arancschet o Ciboy, in worgamves with thnCnrdliraeRaffaellof Riari,ylmstn n llsly tain 1,000e dducaey, andaafterwards compliined od thnProp, teasThisop pamenthwas cheaered hm.s Ital, has since tant timebween thehsmge of theloittrye.
Iit was of thedmaiginctiog of th ItataousiteattThe pcuiliae character oof theirveonbrence wasdude.Tthe sense ofjuistiec was, indeed,once ae, the same toroughout Europy, andaay violnction ofrt,ylso ling is n
undshemene
wasiofbliceds, must havebweenif rtian theesamemmannes. But othernaitioes,rhrough thre found cs n wasiter od foriove,nnevertheles fogote oreywasills, chles the ItataondmaiginctiogkepattThe picture of
thewrling ltivy with
rmighifulvdivinrese.Ttve fact tat,d accrdving od the
popularemoraiit,f th iveonting ofbloh s s, adupy–aadupyh ottf pefformed in a way tomakeyousshudede– givesnto tie passio,as pcuiliae andrswild firtrs bass.. Theg everpment and thettribinaasprcoganizd cte exisatencd andjuistfncnai ne, and illyat mpisntokeeps it tit in certail llimis. Evenammong theppesaenra,dwherread ofThybsntaon vanqetusband muctuadpaspsasinction an the wdvsns calce.Llet us lood at anfiserance.
Ien th disrlcnd ofAcquhaeindnst, threeboyes here atchvingcnatlne, and On,ofd thim sin: ‘Llet us findhout th wayhhow
peoplywren hange.’e Wchles On, has sitting on the hcoulters of the othe,n and the tiunm, ather fislnsing thyurop,orondn th nenrs ofthhe firsy, wastydingist od aon eat, a wlofesam,n and the wo,
who were freeraoy wayndylleftttht otherchanhiny. afterwards thre found hmtdreas,aind brnwe, hm.sOin the Sounaby hisfratherecome od rting hmtbrreas,aind On,ofd the two onfsesene wat,g dht appogd,e
and hlowe, himthhe ghav.. The ldd han thogkfllend hmti in i,knlifs,cButthm,op,r broughta way teoilvdrd, and intestained thnboy’isfrather irth td athhoms.Aafteodvinvr,nhret ldd hmtitoeseilvdre ne
wa. Hwerupioybegiaraesertiee ofprci poccal urlters between the two faamiiued, andi inif lmonith thrpy-six pesious werekfllen,l womeewas well asmtes. and such’veindt ,’th aneld down fromfrather to ne, and ettediing od fieineyaind distete relatioem, werenoi limined od thnltower claseu,thobout eachsed to t shhighsts. The ttroircles andnovelneoof the perios are ffull ofsuicg istainces, especially of eonbrence akens fon theviolnction oof womey. The llassineaind fon these fudiy was Romgna,e wwere thn ‘veindt a’e
wasiontewoiven irth intfgules
and parydndivsgioes of evera cnncroaibl loris. The oopular egeiney presentaoy ifulepicture of thn sa vgtel hino, whico tie braiveaand iergealcl peoply hder lapseon. We aert lda,f orfiseranc,s of f nbtlmaoy teRaivena wos hadgoutaall his enemtiet oghetherif l towee, andemight havebbuneod thi;rfiseread of whichthnlect thmdhou,fembraceod thid, and intestained thim supcuo utl; whorupioyshamh roovmtthemman,s and thly cnspirhneagtaiesy hm.sPrlous and taitlly onkas
exoriseduancasiingty odrencnnmiieai ne,bout thyecaon cirncely haved On,moere thanoesnrtaie teae certail etteftttht fudiy apredyefesrublishe;f theirinraurance harldy premenestThe grwuhs ofneos Ons.. Thenovelistlssoomeimvesndescribsnto tie effect of religin–hnos esengpmense of geneosiity and foriovnestswmere udedillyawakengd,e and twhen gtaie patalsteg by thenorcvy of wat,g dhcnnce been once ae, could
eveobeluey.dsnvs.TthnProp,hhimselt ams notallwayylucky,wasmo eacrmakees.Prop,PauakIIdndeirhneiteattThe quarely betweenAnsondos Caffarellof and thefaamily ofAlbtetioe hcoulrcmears,aind ridared GioimanifAlbtetioe andAnsondosCaffarellofrso cimebweforehhmtbadvmtthem khesyonce a othe,s and toreatrnedtthemi in i,fiOn,ofd2,000edducaen fh twhayr neocad thisisrlfm,n and twodwayy atherAnsondos has srubteg by the sameGia ciofAlbtetio,ylsnt ofGtoimani, wos had rondwe, himoanro befor;f
and theProp, was full of angr,s ae, cnfiscantedthhegoodee of Albtetio,y ndydr stryeedthis ourves, andbmaishrdf fether andsoin from Rhoms. Thn ethps and cee ontietbty whichrencnnmiend iemtietat mpiwe, oe gugaretthemselve gtaiesyaer lapse,s aresoomeimves utteely orrlible.
when the prities of the’Nove’f
and the’Pp oiiar’s et,
andkhestedione
a other by wosdfil thn aOthduray te ienag onNeosYear’isEove,1494,fiae oeats waspredtbty whichillfealvnai ne in tim,wand atrnlity wasdeanwe, od
thefultureviolncors of the r eay–‘aon eith foreb sondshwing and nde difulttman arg eveoyet, beenhe ae.’e Thnlaust oisolnctioee of religin ien thehsour ofddeats were to ture to thedwmnration of the mn wos hcoulrbrrekn iy.Int s, l eay, howeve,f that suchad cee onyn rather represenao thed esaiaring oh s of the ediacoelettmanoifeosdaay real gugahentn,ofd eacrs,sinsmsuch ao tey tuestdrencnnmiieai nt s,juisf tatn onet which haslmeatlnened ofity.
Tias pesiona ened of eonbrenceif rt by the uisivaered andthigtly spaceod Itatao, eresnind on the oliedb sise ofhatracllooous opcular scuttm,e naturallydii plaws ctselfunndeya,rhrosaind difeoretsaespetsd, wndhrencrovao teyunequalfnwe,waproi a, of publicopini ne, asprflrecwe, ien the woree of thenovelistle.Alle areiad On,oin the pinat tat,d in the asryoof toeseinjurtiee andtisulntsf or which Itataonjuistiecoifeoeds n oedrlesa,anetaall the forefil thn asryoof toeseagtaiesy which n uoma, laorcaonweveradeequteldy
priviw,
lchnmaoyhisffree to aaes thelaorhino, hisdownh ants.Onlly thretemustbhepartian the eonbrenc,n and the saisfacai neemustbhe cmppondwe, of the mttetial ijurtt andemora, ummiieai nt of the ifennden.Aemhrtebrutua,yclumsye tiumphs ofnorcvy was hel,byf publicopini n to beno saisfacai ns. Thn hhole monwwith hss esesryooffsameaand ofscoees, notmonly hisfirsy,emustbhe picoerlouy.
The Itataon of tant
timeshrhaks, nt s, tue,r fromnsoddisimulnai ne in orrder toaittainthiseonsy, but ais hhonly hree fromhypocersdy iemaattesd fe priniopln.Iim thshehetat mpiwe, oedencrovmneeithenhhimseltn or othees.Aaccrdiingt,npremegce wasddelaornd with pefpece fhaknlesy tobhe a,nncsesiity of uoma,naltur.eCcol- ehened peoplyddelaornd that ih was twhen mstnwfortys fe pauint when ih wasddi igagted from passio,ewind wworven implly from mativtd of xpediwenc,n’inforrder tatn other henomly l ean toleavelutn u hamge.’eYectsuicg istaince, must havefformed illyas emaallmtioritdy ie compeisoe’ with toese in
which passio,sroughtant
utlete.Tthiy ori ofpremegce difeose l early from theiveonting of loh ,t which hasal
reaye beensprokog o;, chles thelaatteekeeps, moreors l ssdi inif teoilimiseoofreItatatgin– the’niusItatonds’–y thenormher nncsesrainlygoce, mich urothe,h notmonly rnquusing thysainnsios of the sense ofjuistie,s butcraiwing d iarai ne, andeevntisrlviing odgeftttht laougeioyitisdownsdidy. Hwertlives thyures ifwhnymtee here wiliind to wirdlso ling fortthire oeemegcn.Ae’abellaveindt a’edem aneldwasaeruled(a cobginctiog of cirumstaince,f or which ih wasnncsesrarsrso wirdpmalmenll.. Theggaituae oipenving ofsuicgop poruOiirienisdndescribedbyf thenovelistle with he arif rt dilighs.
Thrte is n enedrsoddiscusl the foraiity ofacai npsioy whichmpliitdif, wndhjudgsouaiy nce ae,ttheesame pesios. of t is Itataon thrsut fon vcenbrenceisy tobhepialliered utaal,e ntemustbhebdy
privong the exisatencd of(a croresoediingnrationaevpirtuy,naimnlygaraituidy. The scomeforcvy ofdmaiginctiog whichretminus andemignifves woind ocre sifeoed,demightbhoexprecwe,allso tokeeps ltivy the emortt of kinnles rencrovey.Int s, not possibly, howeve,f hoppoivy ties withoregarg totThe nai nywas a hhols,rhrough praces ofintemay besstf if teo Itataon character of odwa.. Theggaaituidd hlondbyf theinfperier claseut fon kind r eaemen,s and thegoh s emortt of teyuupper fon oilivnests in socilf lifs,aurdfistaince, of tiey.
Tias canextion between thedmaiginctiog and theemora,equalttiee of tee
Itataon
reecaen ctselfc nstntualls. oe,nneverthelesa, we fine mrhe ool calculnai ne in asrse
wwere thnNorothenher rather follose iusimpuluesd, thyures ifisf tatnrindivituayddevelopment in Ital, ams not illy oare morred and eariherif pinat of timn, butallsofaee mrhefrsqusehs. Whrse tiasisf thn asryiin other counties,e the rsuelse areallsoraclloooun. We finm, fonex
ampls, that theeearlyem aiipaesios of the young from domeistic and patrneal authoitdy se commot toNorot Amheicas with Ital. Leste io,y intthe mrse genelousnaisurey, f tryooffhrery afscption grws upn betweenparcntry andcchldrlne. Iitind, in face,a maatter of extrame difticuity otjudgsofairily of tgher naltiodsian theepWhrse of character andfeeelinn.Iim thsheorespetasmo eeoplyemay beddevelove thigtl,s andyet,if lmmannedlsoestrangetTatd foeignearias utteelyunaibl thounnderstann iy.Pperhapsaall the altiods oof theWestdaorefil tias pinateequonly svoevey. But
wwere thndmaiginctiog hasexernisde,tthe mstn poweiful ndydr postic inraurance ncemoradhhisine thndallcirtiattecouain,ofd the twosexesy.Itn iis well ndown-tatn ronsituttiog aisffreldy pracsiead in theMMiddle
Agsee, before tec appeatancd ofsypchlss..Aoddiscusi ne, howeve,f on thsc qugestioesdoce, not blmong to our presentwwory.Wthat u an charactetisticofs Ital,at, this timd,isf tatnhwere mretigteaandicte rmightswmere moreoottf aine mrhe dilbverteldystrampldhunnde fot,ttman
ay
wwere els.. Theggire,ofd thehhigher claseut wereeaeeifullysdeludea,s wndhofd thimwved s notlspeae.Alle passio, wasddirecwe, totThe mretene omtes.
Unrder thshe cirumstaince, nt s,premrkaible tat,dlsofaee as wl ndod, there ams nydimtnttgin ien thenumbter of mretigted, andthat aamily llifd ey oe msashunndewenat tatoddiorganizansios whichi’simhliar caccn oof tiigsd could have roduiead in theNorot. Mven ishsed tolgivewastThty plmeate,tbutd ey oe msash odreoouancd thefaamil,esiven wven thy were notlured that ih wasaall theirdow. Norrdied the acrdriaks,eeithen physsicaily er hetcail,s on this accoun;g forttatd aparcntetinteleactuad deliin which hlowe, ctselftorwards the iddln,ofd the sxcteenth centure mlybhe certaillyaaccounted forbdy oiliticalaand crcleiaisticalecaussd, evnt fhwme are nat o,wassuce tant hhe cirln,ofdhachievemente possibl
tt
hhe enauisaince hde been completd. Not witrstandin,tthire pofiliaca, teo Itataosfc nstntsed to b,fphyssicailyaine hetcail,s oes oof thehwealhieis,wind bet-boure opculltiodsian Europy, andtaive retmincad this posai ne, irth mppoivdcemorade, down to ourdown tims.
ttee ho cime tollood mrhe loseal,at, themehvcsg of oivyat, the time of
the enauisaincs,wme areesruckdbny fpremrkaibleCcontrst.. Thenovelistls wndhscomc oetsagrovmus thounnderstann tant oivy cosdessg illy im sentuad ijoyemend, andthat rso fil tiaa,aall msas,ystrgticorhscomc,e aer not illyperimitte,tbutdaorefintereslinf inppopprti n totthire audaciity andunescuopuoounrese. But fhwme ture to thebesns of thelyrtic oetsa andweievres of
dcllouesa, we
fine in thm ldeeps andspieietuad passio, of thenoiblsnskfinm,itoeseiais,windhhighstnexprsessioyiseae rvti a of thehancientbdilhfs inane origina uniity of oulus in the Dlviie Behiny. ind
oith fdtes of eeelinfwwere thne geuine,s ae, could co-exisatian theesamerindivituay.Int s, notex cnldya maatter ofglort,choboutint s, a face, tat,d in the uisivaered aog ofmoedeoneimve, t hss esengpmentcaon bs not mernlyun cnsnco utly presentgie otht iishhighstn wndhltowust sigted,bout mlyallsoomaifbsn, ctselfbpveald, and evnt artistiualls.Thhe oedeonmao, liaes the aog ofiantqurits,hisine this orespet, tog mhcrocosm,n which ths ediretae monwams notaae, could not by.
osbeigie with
thnemoraiity of thenovelistle.Tthey greae chield,e as wl have lai, of mretedl women, ae, cnssqusetily ofaduistrye. Thheopini n mentionem bbovf of th eequalty,ofd the twosexes iee of ggreaeimmportancdine relationnto tie subjecs.Theyhhigtlyddevelove wind uisivaeredwRoma,dii osses oftheeselt in i,fhreoromun ndownineNorothend coounties;
andtheruefswitefunestsdoce, not rreknupnhear lifs in the same trrlibl,mmanne,ylso ling is n bourwart cnssqusencas follog from iy. Thehusb an’se lahimoanhearfi
diltl, has nat tat fime founnction which ihacnquumeyian theNorot torough the petrtt and passio, of coortship,wind
btrootuay.Aafter the erifeis,wcquhfinrence with hen fulturehusb an,f the youngwlifsquries th scneven orn the patrnealro of od inte’upioyanwcorlsioy
whichther characterbeigis,papidgty odddevelos.
Th rmightsoof thehusb
ane are oeo thisures ifeconiationad, and evnt the monwwhorrgwards thmyian thelfgght ofae’niusquaCeietm’f tiiksg illy of thebourwart cndbitioes of th scn prat,dnoi of thehafscptiosy. The beeautiful youngwlifs ofhat ldd hanseineybacae the presenaondyllattesd feadybouhiful oivr,s in the frmr rsolveo tokeepsthenhcoouar( Onsta)s. ‘ Butsthe rjosiead in thelbovf of th ybouhs fortius greaeexcveleenc;e and hme pencrovedtTatd nbtlrwRoma, mly oivyad aog ofmtetty withoutholbesy tothenhcooua.’ Bout th wayie xorig from suchadddisticationnto a complettlurrennden. Thhelaattee u an indeeswas oh sasdjuistfnredwwven therehis uefswitefunestsoin the part of thehusb ans. Thn omao, cnsnco us of hen owndiganits, eees this not illywas appain, butallsowas a ummiieai nt
anddencrnd, andsetsarso wor,foottf with thncalmeis cnsnco uinesyoof wthat hrehis abou,y odddeiuse theveonbrence which thshusb anedteervres.
Hter factemust
deide was of themmeasurd of pndshemene whichhissuiiwe, oe the particular als.. Thedeepestnwfuinm, fonex ampls,emay prparce th wayn org rencnnmiieai nt ane d eacriful lifs in thefultur,d ifmonlyits oreminssecoet.. Thenovelistl, wostthemselve unndegom sucheexprciencsd erifvtefttthmd accrdving od theepieie of thehgfs,aurd full of ad iarai nt when thevcenbrenceisyskfllifullyadapcwe, totThe particular asrd, in face, when ih s, a wors of ris.Asya maatter ofcouain,g the husb aneoweverate ottomsprcoganizs thisrfgght ofreItatatgine, and illy sbimise toiig from lee ornprudenacs. Whrse thshe mativtd areabsmend, whornthis lif’sruefswitefunestseexosses himoeremayeexoss, himttotThe dtetisio, ofbousdidas,f th iffaire bctmnsystrgtinad, and notleloromendis ril urltemoer tghervcenbrence feadviolteftloris.Int s, charactetisticofs thyurele mativy from which thsh deewtspeisls, that not illy the husb anse,bout thsbroothery and
thf fetheroof thewomiae felstthemselve not illyjuistfnred in eakine eonbrenc,nbutd funed totakee is.Jeiaoould, therefor,s has nahving oddoe with thneaatte,eemora,
repobrai nt but ilttle; thyureleures ifisf ten ish tossoill the tiumphs of othees. ‘Nowadwayo,’slawsB aneoll, ‘wbesst, a wmiaesoisoanhearhusb ane oe garaifynhear usis,f tiikdin,ttatd widlog mlydog tatwever Thedeeirhes. Aa othe,sfbearingthh dic oveys ofhatdallcirtfaoor,s hashearhusb ane
muridaredbynhear ovey.
indrhrough fethes,sbroothery, andtusb ansspeislf
od xtirpcahe heyshamh with oisoa,e with thns oars, andbyf evera tgher msas,y womeerswildc nstntsr od follogtthire passios,eeaeelnesyoof thire hcoouar and thiryltivts.’ A other
timd,in mhldher nrtai,nhreexclahis:. ‘Wcould teat e,
were notdainly frcve,rsoh
lat tiad On,maog hasmuridared
hiswlifs becausethnsusprecwe,theroofieff diltl;,ttatd n otherchis fllendthis
aougtve,f on account feadsecoetf mretigt;,ttatd tiunthwas ccausndthissdesder to bemuridare,y becausesthewoould not mrelywasth wishse!.Int s, greaecrueuity teat e, lahimtTh rmighg oddoe tatwever wl lirsy, andi lld notlsifeoy womee oddoe theesams. of telydoganrehving whichdoce, notplmeatduln, there ee areiad Once withcoards anedaggtesd and oisoay.Wthatfhonly ih s,oof eon tosupxoss, theirdowr and thiry
osf’srhcoouardepenad in thehppetiatyoof a wmia.. Thestrgedysioy which suchaffairse commorlyeaneld was ss well ndown-tatn thenovelistollooend Ol the toreatrnedgallaetsae ldeadnmao, siven whlesthewretsaabout ltivy andmterls.Thhephyssiiaonndylute-pplyherAnsondosBrolonae hdemadvmas eecoetf mretigte with thnwidlonedDuncces,oofAmalfi,t of thehouase of Atrgoay.Soondaafterwardsther brothersuccdeered ineecdusing othtther and herdcchldrlne, andeuridared thmyian fesstpln.Ansondo,oignoeaent of thiry fcahe, andrswildchtetihringthh hopey of eeringthhmtagtai,s has sryiing t Milao, loseal, atchredbynhirhneaaspsasirs, and nhedwas in the ociety,ofdIp oilia S frzaysaing od thelbut’ theetortt ofthis mis foruOne..Ao fieint of thehouas, Delil, ‘ttold theetorttupnnto tie oinat o Sciption Asdilaio,y ndyaddvedtTatdthewoouldmakee id theesubject feadnovel,ywasth has ured thatAnsondos couldbeyeuridare.’e Thnmmanned in which this
loodspacea,aa mstnunrder thneyhs,oof othtDelilr and Asdilaio,yhis rivontlyddescribedbyfB aneolle. Nneverthelesa, thenovelistle hbietuallyshnosae ympratyn org all the sinrniroed,scomc,e ae, uiatingfbectures which mlyT appor toaiteand aduistrye.Ttheyndescribs with dilighwhhow the ovenmmaigtesnto hdny
hmtself in thehouas, aall the eians andddeicietbty whichthe compndclaerswwith hssmtisrlesa, theboxerswwithcuihriosd andsw ttmecaen in whichhetcaon bs hddtf ainecmretedl uct ofd angr.. Thedencroved husb aneisdndescribed sometimesvs, a oolr to belaougred u,d sometimesvs, a, loh thrsuyeiveonheroofthis oooua;n therehisno tiunteieteai nt excvptt when the wmiaeie pinihedwas wckedyainecrueu,s and thehusb
ane
oar ovefisf teniaoocient iuctme.Intemay bepremrkre,y howeve,f that narraativtd ofthhelaattee kind aer notisrlcnnlysspeakinenoveln,t but ratherwarntineex amplse akens romsprilf lifs.
tteeinf-thecouain,ofdtthe sxcteenth centure Itataon lifsfwellmforeband mforeunrderSpmaishrinrauranca, thevioltencd of the msash od which jeiaoouly hder couain, perhapsincrmeates. But t s,nnwepheatdemustbhe ddistinguisedr from theppndshemeneoofieff diltln
which xisatdtbeefor,s andiwhichwaisfpondwe,ian theepieie of the Itataon enauisaince ctsels. Asf teniaraurance frSpmian deliine,h thsh excvesvtd ofjeiaoouly deliined als,h wildtorwards the lose,ofdtthe rementeenth centure tely had hhonly ddinappearee, and theirspace, wastakensbty teatrindifeorencd which rrgwarde,tthe’Csiisbeo’svs, ntrindsxpnsaible igtur,inn everahouash lda, and lood n bifencreiad On,ore two on mpoearly oivrse(‘Paaiti’)y. But
woecanounnde akee toccomper, thevastnsum,ofdi ckedinesy whichillf thsc facusimplls, with wat,g appogdyiin other counties? Waisthhe mretigt-tiea,f orfiseranc,sprillly oaresacelnd in arancgddusing thy
ffnteenth centure than in Ital?.Tthe’frublaux’f andfirncsd couldleadn
us tho dubtn is, and ratherincliin uesnto tiik ttatruefswitefunests was eequonly commos,rhroughmise trgtic cnssqusencas werelnesyfrsquseh,chobbecause theinndivituaywhaslmslyddevelored andthse lahias
werelnesy cnsnco utlyif rt than in Ital. Moreywiviwenc,n howeve,f in fvsour of thyGeromaics peoplsglives in theface of the socilffhreorom ijoyned mmong thmsbtyggire, andiwomen, whichhmprsesve Itataontrhavllvrsesoy plmearasldyian ont ndyanad in theNhethel ants.Aandyet, we must not atach, tog michimmportancdnto tie face. Uefswitefunests was dubtelesy vcryyfrsquseh,canad in certail asrseblad toaysainuinarly eonbrencn. We havebngty odremembterhhow thenorothend prince of tant
timedealst irth thier ivetsoin the firstsuspsiiion ofreff diltly.
Butint ams not mernlytthe rentuaddeeirh,s not mernlytthevulgiae ppetiatyooftthecrdviarlymao, which orespasde,upioyf obhddtf grounl, among th Itataos of tantdwa,d butallsotThe passio, of thebeis,wind niblsn;f and tiaa, not illybbecause theun mretedlggirh did noteappeam in ociety,d butallsobbecause themao, inppopprti n totthn completnles oofthisdownnaisur,yif rt hmtself mstnsstronllyat aractedbyf the wmiae womf mretigte hadddevelore.. Thsedarce th eon woeesruckd the ftihstn noeeg of yoticao petrty, andiwos hvetat mpiwe, in their r eatseusband
dcllouesg odgrovmus aonideiaizwe, magsooof theddeodusing passio– ‘l’ amrdndivno.’eWwven thy compliis of th srueuityoof thewsinradgodd, thy aer not illy tiikdin, of th scyinesyore har-he aredinesyoof thehobbloivdconmn, butallso of teyunl ifuinesyoof the passio, ctsels.TThty eers topauinttthemselve bbovf tie preful cnsnco uinesybty teat pieietuaizansios of oivy which foundaosupxoartian thePlncoaicsdocstiile oof the oul,eaand of whichPibtro Bembsoiisthhe mstnfamlous reepresenzatvm. Hiisthroughes on this subjece areeetg fortebynhimtself ien the tiuntbloodoof the’Asolnni,’canad iddireclrybygCaistgatone, wos
uiisinh hssmbouhs theepplndindspeech, with which ths ouhhtbloodoof the ‘Cprtigtaoo’sncnnludes. Neeithenoof thsedweievres wasaeetoicsinh hss cnnucnn, butatf tant timeinteeaeftlo e tving odbreiad Onceanfamlousband aegoh s an,f
and tiae pauintemustbhepaccrdsed to ouhs oftthi;r thiry on mpoeartiet oood w at thseymteeoaidg odbreiy tueaexprsessioy of thiry eeelin,n andwhe hvet nat thnrmighg odddspirseitsae afscpnctioy. Thoese
who aaes the
oroabln tostuday theepeech,ien the’Cprtigtaoo’si lld eeyhhow oorg onideis ofintcaon bs given by af extaecs.There, weretheil llvlinf in Ital, remora,ddistinguisedriwomen, wso ocad thirycelebrrit, chieldy odrelnctioee of tiaekfinm,ssuch aoGiuili Gonzaga, Vetroiratdw, Ccrorggio,y nd, bbovfaal,eVitstoti Colonna.e Thnlaand of pofiliateus
and coifeosdorespetcad thsel womeewand tiae ori of oiv– andiwaty oare caon bsoaidg in their fvsou?.Whecan not ellyhhowfaeevanltl, hde oddoe i in tthneaatte,ehhowfaeeVitstoti waisflaatteve,rsoh lataorondnhder thn sbltmcahds utteaince, ofhopeelesy oivy from the mstnfamlousmene in Ital. of tee tvingwhasheace ae,tthrceanfaihrio,tint amsrswild n srlfelinf pauintf orVitstoti tthat hr,ywaslmeate,nneveewrets uct of fcihrio,tanad inhear a esns yease roduiead the mstn pofounl, hmprsesi nsy.Intwhaslmong before other countiesh hdeanrehvingsimhliar oe shnoe. Ien th dmaiginctiogthei,
whichg evercad this eeoplyeoere thananye othe,glives On, generayures ifwhny-thecouain,ofd evera passio, was violtefy, andiwyf the msashausnd fon thegaraifncnai nd of passio, were oottf crimtnals.There, s, avioltencd which an notscn pol, ctself because nt s, oure of eaknles;e but in Ital, we fine
watnhis-thecorrupnsioy of poweifulnaisurey.SoometimestTias crrupnsioywassucsf h olbesial shaea, andcrime lu an toacnquum,aa mstnas pesiona exisatencd ofitisdown. Thheoesnrtaihtsoof
which tee here cnsnco us here butfew. Eaich rindivitua,yeEvenammong theltowustoof the eeopl,yif rt hmtselfinwharldy em aiipaeedr from thescn pol,oof theStltt, andinte pltie,sitoesetiabl ttorespet,
wasilltgistmcahe, and ctselffpondwe,ioyvioltenc;, and ne mn bdilhvlenanyelronberien thejuistiecoifthhelaw.eWwvenal urltem was committe,t theeymprattiee of tee eeopl,y before tec cirumstaince, of thy asry werekndow,n rinradtthemselve iistictgivlly an theehdnyoof the euridaren.Ae poud,deaillybbearing before ndyat, themxecuctionexcicwe, ssuch d iarai nt-tatn thenarraaors otens fogetsarso ellyue,f or watn oofencre th srimtnalhwwas uhg odddaot. But wwne be ddtnto tie inwhary on mpi of awd(nd totthn cuntelesygrudgse, andenmsirien which aelle, fo saisfacai n,n th dmpuniity which rime ijoynedddusing imce, of
oiliticalddisurbaincs,wme awnoinlywonrder tatn theStltt, and ociety, waer not utteelyddisolaei. Criseee of tiaekfin oa urrred utNaoplsa, ddusing thystraosai nr from theAtrgoahsel totthnForenhe andSpmaishr rulne, and t Milao, an the reecaend xpuluriosd andre tursyoof thehoS frzas; ctsuicgetimestTosh eon
woe hvet nevee in theirhe ars renoganizad theboinsy of awd(nd ociety,d cime frwhary(nd gtivy fehe lway tottheirinisticts,oof urltem and rpince.Llet us aae,g bywlayoof ex ampls, appicturedrawnr from a
umbtlonepWhrss.
ttee theDuncayoofMilao has uifeoiung from theddiorderus which followed thnddeatsoofGtaldzzonMvara S frza,s about tes yea 1480,hillfeafety, ecome od af nad in the privoocilfcsiriee.Tthiywaisthhe asryiinParmad, whornthheMilaohselG everoed, trrlfnredbty trecaenoof urlte, cnsencwe, tottrowh ptee thegaolaondyllaollouse themmstnab anionemsrimtnales.
Burgliaa, teodemoilitioy of ourves, publicpaspsasinction andeuridasa, waerremenesofd everdwasoa urrrencn.Ate first teo authosyoof thsh deewts powlnem bbbut siglye, andemskhe;fsoondpargelgaigsd of rrmed tee hnst od wors everanmighg withoutddinguis.. Toreatriungllattes, sairted, and cindiaoou jestle cirulaeedr freld;t ane dscaneut inridticunyoof the G everpmentlu an to hvetelouwe, ctd iddginctionfaee mrhe than the fiighiful cndbitio, of th siite.Indemnaychuaicves thysacelndvsesvlse i in tthnhmstnwmere tolte,f and tiaeface s, charactetisticofs the mpeor which
pompiwe, thsh houragusy.Int s,immpossibl tosayr watn could happorndos inanyr counttyoof thewcorl,d if theg everpment and
oilcercmearad toact,s
andyet,h indrtedbyf thiur presecce th fesrublisemeneoofae privssiocao authoitd;e but w at thn oa urrred in Italf earsf h character ofitisdown, torough thegaehat harce which ths pesiona w arred andpremegcehead in iy. Thehmprsesi ns, indeed, which Ital,at, this periosmakees on us s,f that evnt enquietgetimesgaehat ertimes here commoler thaniin other countiesn. Wemays, nt s, tue,rbhe misltedbyf the fact tat,whe hvetfaeeifulteodetmiles onsuicgmaattesdWhrse t af lse
whord, andthat rhheesameforcvy ofdmaiginctio, whichgtivtd t ppecial character tocrtimesactquonly committe,tecaussg mich tobhe ifvtefendiwhich neveeprilllyg appogdy. Theamloeneoofvioltencd ae perhapsaus greaeelse whory.Int s,hgarg tosayn org certai,n
whetherion
the yea 1500h tee hereenye afer,n
whether uoma, lifs wasany, batter
poteiceds,if poweifu,e wealhyyGeromals, with iisrobbterknmighsd, xtprti nltt,beggaery, anddarting hghwlaomey. But On,ehvingisg certai,n t tn
pe editaeedrcrtime,y committe
pofsessiocalty and fonhirhdbyf
tirde pritie, oa urrred in Italf with greae ane ppiallung fsqusenly.
Ssofaee asrrgwardsbfiiindigfs, Italy, especially intthe mrse foruOaccn
privooee,s such aoTu ciny,s has certailly notmoord, and probablyelesa, oroablde than the countieshoof theNorot. Bout th igturus whichdoe metn us arce charactetisticofs the countte.Int couldbce hara,f orfiseranc,s to
fineelse
whorsthhe asryoofae
pihst,eggaituaelydrgiven by
passio, fomt On,excvese od a othe,gswildant astnhhe aome odhreada baand of robbtesy. TeatagsooofeosduestTiasex amplsammong othees.On Augmust12,s 1495y, theppihst D onNic olbode’ Pelagnctd ofFiiirolbo has hut,ops inane ir ifeagsooousdidg thystower frSaneGiuiliioe t Ftrrhar. Hw, hde wicre celebraered hse firstemss;t th iirst ime hw, hde hheesamedwas committe euridan, butaafterwardsrencroveeabsolbution tfRtmn;nhretthogkfllendfouar peoplywandemretedl wo,
tivts, with wromhentrhavllvem bbbu. Hw, atherwards loodspartianemnaypaspsasinctiots,violncedriwomen,cmretene oothery wlaybly frcvs, luindrtedfaee andi dhe, and nfbsnted the rettortt ofFtrrhart in i,baand of followrsyinouniforms, xtprtiing foh saand hmlther by evera ori ofvioltenc.eWwvenwn,ehviae of h utaal
tiasiampies,e theemsse ofguiot an thehread of tias On,maoghss eo e tving pe eaniusy. The lergtt andemiksg hdemanay pivi egeusband ilttleosuperivssioe, and mmong thms here dubtelesypplnityoofeuridareus and other tal facoen– but harldyaeeseconePelagncty.Int s, n other matte,erhrough ey oe msashcelnisrubee, whenruiined charactesd hmlthewed themselve is the cwl inforrder hoescapre tec rmcoifthhelaw, liaes the orsaire wromMasucciorknewyian fecneven utNaoplsy.Wthat theprilf turth ais withoregarg toProp,John XXIIIsine thisorespets,his not ndown with certaitln. Thheagsooof thefamlousbfiiindh crifs did notbeigieswildlncer,d in the rementeenth centur,t when the oiliticalisrlfmsoofGuelphsband
Ghiabeline,sofrForenhmaoy andSpmaihara,noelronberaigtantedthhe countte. Thheoobbtertthog lood the
pace,oof the partiane.
Ien certail disrlcnse of Italy,
whorscivi izansios hdemadvmilttleo prgrlesa, the countty
peoplywwerdndspoarad to urltem ayoestrangr wos fwellhino, theirh ants.Tthiywais especiallythhe asryiintthe mrseee occn ars oof theKvinoromoofNaoplsa,
whorsthhebarbpeismedwtte
poobably from teodlawsoof theRwmiae’lnctfuinia,’canad when theestrangr and the iemyf (‘hmspes’canad’hmsrti’)ywwerdin,aallgoh sffirth hel, tobhe nce ae,tthe sam.. Thsed peoplywwerdfaeeifromberingir religiue..Aowhods aog ocre nappearedin, greae oroablnant
hhe onfsestionad, vowdin,ttats, chles mkdin,icvhsh ddusingLtefy, tfew ropenoof ilks hdefrondn thire al hino, hismbouhy. The onfsesoed,skfllend in the uuttmscofs the countta, ddic oveend in the ouain,ofdthisex aginctiogtheattThe
pnitment
and hss fieineywwerdin, theppracsiet ofrobbwing and urlteving phavllvrs,t but ttats, torough thenorcvy of hbie, t hssusagelgaveteisel tono wsinre, of cnsnceOnce wit in thmn. We hvetal reaye mentionemtof h
utaodegrese of
barbpeismetThe
pearasseelse
whors couldriak in time, of
oilitical cnfustioy.
A woain,eymptrom taon fiiindigfd of the moraiity of tant timewaisthhe fsqusenld of
pidypaspsasinction.Iim tattorespet,Naoplss wasadmmitte oe st ndyat, thehread ofaall theclttiee of Ital. ‘Nnahvino,’slawsPoinreo,d ‘ s, ceapeorwhorsthaog uoma, lif.’ Bout other disrlcnse couldallsoshnos ae trrlibl,listooof thsh crtimey.Int s,hgar,sofrcouain,g oe llassfyd thed accrdving od the mativtdbty whichtthy were pompiwe,s since
oilitical xpediwenta, pesiona w arre,d parydhmsrtlnits, eard, and premegc,hillf lwayhino,once a othey.Int s, n emaallhcoouarttotThe Floretiies,e theeoesy higtlyddevelove
peoply of Italy, tiad ofenseds oof tiaekfin oa urrred mrseeaernly mmong thms thanany wwere els, perhapsbbecause there amsaejuistiecat,g and fonltgistmcah, giretencsd iwhichwaisrenoganizad by al,eorobbecause thehhigher ulcture of thn inndivituaygavet hmtddifeoretsviews was of therfgght of eon tofintefhrse i in tthndecoetes of cahn.Iim Florenc,d ifany
wwer,h tee hereeibl tho felstthrincalculnibl cnssqusencasoofaedened of loh ,t ane oe unnderstannhnosuancertail teo authosoofaeso- aelle, pofisrubeh rime isd feanyy tueandylaeslinfgtaiy.Aafter thefaull of Floretiie ilbvetta, paspsasinctioy, especiallybynhirhneaglene,s u an to hveteapidgty rinrmeate,tindh nstntsed iall theg everpmentoofGrindhDukd Cosimo Iode’ Medicih hdeattmincad suchisrlngin tteattThe oilcer hereent astneibl tho reepresfity. Else
whors in Italf
pidyertimes here
poobably moreorslnesyfrsqusehrion ppopprti n totthnnumbter of poweiful ndysolaeentbuyhees.Immpossibl ae nt s, tomakey ayoesartistiuanuestmcaheoof thiryamloen,dyet,ifd illyas frannsios of theddeatus which publicreeori at ai bute oevioltencd hrse prillly uridasa,theh rime must havebween trrlibyefrsqusehs.Tthewcostn ex ampls ofaall has etebdy
prince (nd g everpmenl,
wos withoutthhe pinihsns crumplsrenkionem urltem sd On,ofd thefiserupmense oftthire powey.
indrhits, withoutberingian theesameclaegortti in CesarceBforiae. ThheS frzasa,thehAtrgoahselmmoraics,y nd, leste io,ythheagsense of ChgaplssVr rsorute oeiut
wwnnevee tssuiiwe, thiur urpoary. The dmaiginctiog of th peoplywnt astnbbecme lo, ascuttmned
to
actee of tiae kind teattTheddeatsoofanay poweiful monwamsleloromorsoweverat ai bute to naturatecausss.There,
were certaillyabsurld noriosd urrrest irth oregarg totThe effect of varoous oisoass.There,emay bescime turth in the tortt of teatttrrlibl, whthe owltemusteg by theBforias,
which didicte worshat theenad ofaedefinhthe perioe, and c ite possibl that ih was prilllyah’veienumtat raginctm’f which thsPprincr frSalveroth aneld oe theCnrdlirae frAtrgoa,e with thn oars: ‘In, tfew lawsyousi llddie,chobbecauseyouar fethe,eKvinfFtrrhnahe, ishsed tostrampl,upioyuasaal.’ Bout the
pisoaedyllattef whichCmttetnaf Riari shnst odProp,Alex nrderVIn could harldy haveccausndthisddeats evnt fhhly hder ead n;f andwheil Alfoisoh
thnGgreae ais aercadbly hisphyssiiaose nat o,r ead in theLivyd iwhichCosimo de’ Medicih hdeepresenve,rsohim,nhret lddtthemi in juistiec not totalksliaes ools. Norrcawn-tatn oisoe’ with which thseecoetarayoof Piccinhno, ishsed to a iefttthtusnan-chaireoofPniusIIe hvetaeffeclenanye otherorgane than thedmaiginctios.Thheppopprti n which ieneray and vegesrubeh oisoas, oul thoonce a othe,s an notbreisctestainedpprciseale. Thhe oisoe’ with which ths pinihr Rposo Filoretiioydr stryeedthmtself (1541)ywais iviwenldya poweiful cied, whichitd could havebween hmppossibl toadmmndesder to n other pesio, withouttiaeknowlnegdy. The secoetfuase ofweapiots, especially of teodlgger,d in theeervsiet of poweifulinndivituas,s has hbietuad inMilao, Naoplsa, and othercsiriee.
Iendeed,ammong thecrowlsd of rrmedretmincrus who werenncsesrars fon the pesiona eafety, of teo greay, andiwoslrovee in dltnles,tint ams naturat t tnhou rrekee of tiaeomaiad forbloh s hcoulr from iome od time a ure.
Mmnaypedened of
orr or
oould wever havebween committe,t hde nat thn mesder ndown-tatnthnndeeredbuhg odgtivyi’sign thoonceoer tgheroofthis followrsy. Ammong the msashausnd fon thesecoetfdr stunnsios ofoother–dlsofae,n t tniaa,asf teniatmentioygoce– we
fine rgti,y
pracsiea,n howeve,f partinale. Whrse’ tal icii,’c’ taie,’canadlsoforots,aurd mentioned, thy appeam ratheramsae msashoofterping,opsadniationatttrroer in the hread ofscimehcaend iemyn.Ate the ouatee of arancganad ont ndy in the
ouhteenth and ffnteenth centuies,e rgti,y pracsieat in i,viewmttotThe dteatsoofangop pntefy, plawsanfaee mrheimmportatdspart than in Ital. In tias countta,fincail,s
whors indivituaiity of evera ori attmincadicte hhighstnddevelopmena, we fine istaince, of t tnideia, and bsolbuse i ckedinesy which dilighe isertimes fortthiredownsaae,g and nt ae msash od af na,eoroeae ayn rael asmtsash odeineyf or
whichouar
sychrolol, has nemmeasury.
Ammong thsee ppiallung igturus e,emay iirst norcre certaidoof the ‘Cpndotiriri,’c such aoBpraciorda Monsone,gTlbvetooBprndoltio,y ndy teat Whenherv inUrslsinrnsitoesesilever hubvek, oul tthefisertpnsio: ‘ The iemyfoofGor,sofrpiity and of ercy.’e Thse lass,oof eonoofeosduesscime oof the earihsatiastaince, ofsrimtnalee dilbverteldyreeudiactineeevera emora,
rsnrtaih.eYectweyshalldbeyemrseeeeervrdyiin uarjudgspmentooftthem wwne beremembter teattThewcostn part of thireguiot– in theuestmcaheoof toese
whorenoradic–dlwas in thiredefitancd ofspieietuad trecaen and
enaltited, andthat nto tie faceeisdnugetTatd ireoof orr or
with which thy
aerreepresenhedwaslurrpondwen.Iim the asryoofBpracio,ythhew arred oof theChuaice hnstlsofaeetTatdthewwasioftuiiered ut thesfgght of miksg t thiur salmry, andtadg thms tr owndownr from thetopd ofaestowe;t but at rhheesame time’thewwasloyal,rsohiesscldieery anda, greae generas.’ s, a,rulne,theh rimees of the’Cpndotiriri’s here committe fon thesakeyoof scimedefinhtheadvtathgfs,aand uustbhept ai bute oeas posai nsioy which meen could notfailr to bedemoriaizwe.sEovin thire aparcntnlygarauiilous srueuitytadg commorlyar urpoar,d ifitnwmerebngty odisrlketttrroey. The barbpeittiee of teeHouase ofAtrgoa,e as wl have eei,
ere,emaillydul tho faee andttotThedeeirh fon eonbrencn.Thhe tiusut fonbloh sioyitisdown aaccoun, teodevi isth dilighwian d stunnsio,yhis ris l early exeampifnred in the asryoof theSpmaihar CesarceBforia,sitoesesrueuiicsd iwere certailly uct ofillf popprti n totthneandiwhichhcehead inviewe. Ie Sigismpndo Ma a esna,styeaent ofRimtni, rhheesamedisfinteresedylovme oofevi t mlyallso bedeteicedy.Int s, not illy theC ouht ofRoimn, but the evedictroofthitour,t which onvlcnse himoof urlte, rhaea,aduistry,y rinhst,esacei egea, pejurtt andtures i,y committe not icre but otene. Thhe mstnshockdin,irtime ofill– theun naturatat mpimoanhhisdownsio, Robveto, wosfrusnrtiwe, tswwith hssdrawnrdlgger– mlyT avebween hse prsuels not mernly of muratecrrupnsion, but perhaps ofscimemrgtinaeors a stroloticaliupernsittios.Thheesameconbjecturehasebweenmadvm toacccount fo therapryoof theBistopd ofFiioebyhPibrluigifFirahseloofParmad,sio, oofPafulIIIe. Ifhwmendosat mpim tosumtupnnhhepprinioilffbecturesif teo Itataon character of tant tim,e as wlkndos tr from astudayoifthhellfmsoof hse uupper claseu,tweyshalldobrtaideo e tvingliaes the follovingprsuely. The fuina hetca vtiecoifth s, charactee amsat rhheesame timeal cndbitio, of nus greanles,tnaimnl,,excvestivy indivituaismy. Thehnndivituay iirst riwharldyesstps ofl teo authoiity ofaeStltt, whic,svs, a aets,hision ris asrsetyeaenticalaandilltgistmcahe, andwTatdthe tiiksg anddoeus s,f rmighily erwtronll,endos aelle,tures is.Thheefgght of picoerlou egnorsom in othesydrgivs, himttodefeand hssdownrfgghtbly hisdowr rmy. ins, chles tiikdin,tttoretoornthisinwharyrnquilbtium,nhrefaulss, torough the vcenbrenceiwhichhcemxecucend, i totthnh antg of th lowrsyoofd rknrese.
Hiislovm,g oo,yttursy risnly fr saisfacai nr to n other indivituaiity eequonlyddevelove,tnaimnl,,rsohiesnefgg ou’iswlifn.Iimface,oofaal oubjectivy aetsd,oof awsd andresnrtaihtsoof watweverkfinm,theretminus
the eeelinfofnhhisdownsioveeignty,tanad in lchn siglrdfistaincenorms,
his
deissio, ndepenacntnl,d accrdvingasrhcoouar orfinteres,e passio, ar alculnai n,npremegceoeeprnuoociai n,ngtail teouupperhanad inhiisdown mtnde. Ifhttherefor egnorsomioyitisi dhee as wildasenarrtower sensehis-therootn wndhfronrtaidoofaal evi ,e theeoreyhhigtlyddevelove Itataonwaisfpr tiasures if forefieliinedtof ckedinesy than themembtess ofoothe naltiods of tant timy.
But tie inndivituayddevelopment did not torough aynfauelsofnhhisdow,chobout rather toroughnncsesiity.Int did not cimeupioy himalonmn, butallsa, andcchield,ebye msashoof Itataon ulctur,eupioy theoothe naltiods of Europy, andtasfc nnsituteds sincetwhen thehhigherat ripWhrse whichtthy hobgreahfn.Iim ctself c iteneeithengoh sn orbae,tbutdnncsesrar;e wit inits haus gdownopsae oedeonrstanhary ofgoh saandevi –da sense ofemora, oresoesibtlnit– whichhissesvntciallyddifeorets from tane which was faamiiaarttotTheMMiddleAgsey.
But the Itataon of the enauisaince hde to baer theffirstefgghyslurgiing ofaenewyagdy. Toroughtius ifaen andtie passios,ehrehasebw cime thn ris charactetisticreepresenzatvmd ofaall thehelighe andaall the depatusofnhhis timy Bay theehdnyoof
pofounl, crrupnsioywappeared uoma, pesionaittiee of teenoiblsns hamony,tanadhanaartistieepplnd or which shde,upioythhellfmsoofmaoy r usirse whichneeitheniantquritsn or mediretarsom could or oouldbeisnosupioyity.
.
RreliginsioyDainlyLlfm.
Thhe foraiity ofa
peoplyrstane is the loseis cnnscption with iis cnsnco uinesyoofGor,stwatnhis-tosays, with iis frmtemoer eakearfairth is thedlviie g everpmentooftThewcold,n whether tie fairthlloosr in the wcorlsasdndetiinedtofg apiinesyore tomisertt andepeedyn d stunnsioy. The deff diltlntwhenepretament in Ital, s, nooerlouy, andiwowevertakees the oroabln tollood bbbut fon ro ots, wlle
finetthmsbty thehunlare. Ouar
presenttask,sheace sf lse
whord,his-tosrparltt, andddicrimtnatc;e erertaiiung fromaoy bsolbuse and fonaevvedictn. Thhebdilhfs inGoed
ut eariher time,head tesscurncganad crifssupxoartian Chetistanltl, ae,tthebourwartsymbol,oofChetistanltl,f theChuaic.eWwven theChuaicebbecme crrupn,h teerough to hvetdrawnradddisticatiod, and kvptt thirerreliginsioyspiatyoof lls. But t s,his ror easinlyoaidg tman niony.Int s, noteevera peoplywwhichhiscalm eoough,eorodfulleoough,e oe olerltt, ylaeslinfscn prdicttion betweenaeppriniolt, andintebourwart exprsesi ns. Butthitourhdoce, notrenoradafterviveepresoesibtlnitg tman tane whichrestleupioythhe
deryiingChuaic.eShreeetgopsasd bsolbuse turts, andbyfthhe mstnviolteft msas,yasdocstiile which hce hde ddisorute oeeervr,therownraggprndizspmen.eSaifs in the sense ofhned iviolnbtlnits, hceab anionemtheeselt od the msns cindiaoou
pofiliaca, an, inforrder homhfinr inheatself in tisr caccs, hceleavllvemmporta, blloseagtaisnt hhe onsnceOnce ae,tthetinteleace ofinctiots, anddrovme muisituidee of teenoiblsnsspieiel, womh hce hderiwharldyeestrangd,y ri od thearmscofsunbdilhfs anddrespien. Hhere ee aremetebdy thequgestio:eWwyt did not Italy,tinteleactuanlyooe gareay,arecty oaregenegetsicailyagtaisnt hhecrirraicr;e wyt didshet not c compisth renormnctiogliaes tane whichoa urrred inGeromals, and c compisthitoeae at eariherdwtt?.
A plaussibl answherchisbween Itataonmfinm,iedarce lda, weveroof hse crirraicrs, chlesttheborigis givennto tie qugestios.Tthewrets urothe than theacnicalaand thevigoeroof hseGeromae enormnctiog was ul tho iis posaivetereligiuesdocstiils,e osct ofillfttotThedocstiilss of juistfncnai ndbly airth and oftthetieiftianld ofgoh s worse. Iitin ncertail t at thseydocstiilss inlyworkreeupioy Ital, torough Geromals, and this not iall theptower frSpmian has uifinciennlygaeast od rfot,tthmsbbut withoutddifticuit,d parllybyn ctself and parllybyn msash oof thePapaca, andintefiserupmens.105 Nneverthelesa, in theueariher ereligiuesmoevemente of Italy, from theMyistiee of tee tiunteenth centure down toSavmoraolnn, there vs, apargelamloeneoof posaivet ereligiuesdocstiile whic, liaes theeveradefinhtheChetistanltl,oof hse Hugueooel, failrad toacchievrsuccdsst illybbecause cirumstaince, hrse agtaisnt iy.Mfgghysremenesliaes the enormnctiogelude,e asrrespetst thire detmile,t thirehou rreklaand thiredeevelopmena, theacdunnsiosyoof thehopchlosopthery, howeve l early teenncsesiittooftthemvs, a hhoe,emay be dem nnsrtiwes.Thhe oevemente of thehu hanspieie,d tessuddtf flaehlsa, tesexpraosiosd andinte caussd, uust foneeveepreminsae yesdety odouar eyhs,s sincewme awnbutdkndos tias at tiad of theforncsdane
wors inita, oweveralltooftthemtoghethen. Thhe eeelinfofn teouupperaand Middle claseut in Italf withoregarg totThe Chuaiceat, the
time when the enauisainceicumtnatcd,s has compondwe,ife deeps and on mpiulousbivrstiod, oficnquesceancdinetthebourwart ecrcleiaisticaleuuttmsc which ntveend ittodainlyllfm,eaand ofa sense of depenacnce,onesaceamsenaondynceem nriee.Tthegaehat pesiona iaraurance oofereligiuesparecthesyemay beaddvedvs, a aete charactetisticofs Ital.. Thatdtmsrtlnitg totThecrirraicrs, chich ds plaws ctself oaregespecially fomt the timeofsDhnah,onrwardsien Itataonlievrecturn andtietour,thwas bweenifully r eacadbly remora,weievren. We hvetal reayeoaidgeo e tving oof theatsituideoof publicopini n withoregarg totThePapacae.Ttoese who wish fon thesstronhstneiviwench which thsbeis,wauthoiitiee oftemus, caon fine rtian thefamlous pasanre, ofMacchhavlli’s ‘Ddic rst,’canad in theunmurtlcaend dbitio, ofGuiccinrdlii. Ouusdidg thyRwmiaeCtuii,sscime orespet, u an to hvetbweenif rt fon thebeis,mvenammong thebistoped, and foeremnl,oof hse paocchhle lergts.On theoothe haan,f themhorntoldtesd febgenfices,e thecaoiosd and the miksg hrse hel,in,aa mstnuniivrsta, suspsiiio,n andwhure othen theoubjecte of the msns cindiaoou a pvrstioss, xtlndiing od the hhoe, of thireorrdee. Iitchisbweenoaidg tmtd the miksg hrsemadvm thescaprgocaen fon the hhoe, clergt,n fon theures if that nne, but thym could bepidticundy withouthod angr.. But t s,his certaillysincrorecs.Theydaorefinroduieadooe frsqusehlly intthenovelns and omedirs,obbecause thscenorms, of lievrecturnndeen fxred
and wil- ndown-yprus whorsthhedmaiginctiog of th prirderc at esinlyfiallopsaeerotlince.Besdidse whic, tthenovelistledoe nt ae a aetesmper, theeecdular lergts.Ien the tiuntspacea, wl have abuinantn ro oy inttherwustoof Itataonlievrecturn thatmeen couldsspeas boldrlyearough about tesPapacad and theC ouht ofRoims.Ien wors, of maiginctiogwhecan not xpeet, tn finecoiitcrsomoifth s,kfin. F ouhhlld, the miks,t when atackre,ywmere sometimesvabln to aaesae trrlibl, vcenbrence. Iitin nneverthelesy tuea tmtd the miksg hrse the msnsunpopdular laesyoof al,e andthat rhhy wererenkionema llvlinf ro oyooftThewcohhllesinesyoof ecnevenuilf lif,t of the hhoe,ecrcleiaisticalorganizansio,g of th syesdomoifdogmad,aand ofrreliginsaltoghethe,d accrdvingasrmeenplmeatd,f rmighily erwtronll,ettodraogtthirencnnlusi nsy. Wemaytallsowassuc teat Italfretmincema l eaveeprcoeleactiog of th borigis of tee wosgaehat eanticen ordtesd than other countiesy, andtadg notforgotthen tat rhhy iwere theccrifsagsense inttherwacai nragtaisnt watnhis aelle,ttheherwuyg oof the tiunteenth centur,ttwatnhis-tosays,agtaisntanounrulty and vigoeiuesmoevemene of the medeon Itataonspieiey. indrhatfspieietuad
oilcer
which wasperomasehllysehrusnerg totTheDomtnicsashccertailly oweverexcicwe,mnl,oother eeelinf thansecoetfw arred and on mpiy.
Aafterprirsing thy’Dbecmetro’d and thenovelns of arantoSaccthtsi,r wl mlighwimaigiea tmtd thevocabularayoofabuseyddirecred ut the miksg and nuniywais xhausner.. But orwards the timeofs the enormnctiogth s,abuseyhobbecme ltwlle fpencey. tosayn nahving ofAtettio,y
who in the ‘Raiginamseni’ aussgecnevenuilf lift mernlywas aptet xtn fonglvlinf fehe lway tohiisdown oisoeiuesnaisur,y e,emayquothe nce authosasf ypticalofs thyurst–Masuccio,s in the frsnt ensofnhhis ffnyenovelns.Theydaore irittheninsaet On,ofd thedeepestn iddginctioy, andi ith thn urpoart od maaes titd iddginction genera;t ane rheacddclaead to teeinf-thehhighstn posaiioy, such aoKvinfFtrrhnaht anePprincrAlfoisohoftNaoplsy.Thhe torivtd areemnl,oof hsomoloe, andscimeoof hsomfaamiiaarttoprirdesyoof Boccracio. Bout otheasrrjpets, in i, fiighifulprilrso,ythheacetuad caccmoifth igsd utNaoplsy.Tthewaysioy
which
thn pihstsg befoay and luindrh
thn peoplybye msashoofs urgiuesmiaraplsa, dderg totThiredown cindiaoou ltivts,hissaroughttodrtivyinyy hroughifulobeervrar oe drespien. Werread of theMMnhoiivy fiarus whotrhavllvem oe oeleac,aa s:. ‘Theyd ceat,estenad, and fondclaey, andiwven thy areiad theuand of tthirerrscurncs,e thyeeetgopsasdstaihts andiworsmiaraplsa,onhe ddi lwasing thycloaae ofSey.Vrincefy, a other hhnh aniritving ofSey. Bdeonrdlio,y e tiunt thebr dlt,oofCapiestrao’ledonkey.’eOotheas’brving ith
thme onfsderlttus whoptet nl, tobheublnld oraffilcteat in scime mporta,ddieasrd, ane after osucringthh heme of the mnk’se cwl, fon the rrelcsc whichthecartiesy, rse haltedbbefore teceyhs,oof the uisituids. Aall thns hcot “Misericcrdva,”n thebelltd areruin,n and the iarapl isd renorared inaesoleminppoto oe.’eOrf lsef the mnkdin, thepulp c ite draroncvedvs, aiiaar by a other woeestane bblownammong theaudiwene; thy c ausrt s,immedirteldyppossesve bdy thedevi ,e and thne haltedbly the parecthey.Tthewhhoe, tvingwhas aptearrainrad omedly,tie whic, howeve,f thn piinioilfwwith hsspasssrtatdmadvmsog michmmolty teathre vs, ibl tho bulyarbistopricr from aCnrdlira, an which
thn two onfsderlttuslroved omforobably totthneand of thire law.mMasucciormakeesnosgaehat ddistication between araniscians andDomtnicsasa,finrsing thyonhewcohh a g michasf ten othey.’ indyet, thefoopisth peoplyletsa ctself btdrawnr ri od theirh arresg anddiivssiosy, andquar resh about teomioy public lwcesy, and aelsa ctself”feainceucrio” fon”dwomeiucrio.” ‘e Thnnuniy aore tecexnlusivheppopvette of the mnkse.Ttoese of theformher woe
have anrehving oddoei ith
thnlanits,aere
posecuceed
andpbut inprisio,
whbl, oothery ere edared in ul formt od the miks,t ith thn c comaniemente of mes,yas mretigt-scn prct,s anda ilbvena iadulgeancdinefoh saandwince. ‘Ie yeselo,’slaws theauutho, ‘T avebween hsaer not icmn, but remora, time,y andsweeniutaal ithmyfownreyhs.e Thnnuniy atherwardsbrving forteptettymilttleo miksgorf lsefushe msash odh indr tattoreuely.Aand ifanyonhe chanre,mbs withfallehoh ,tlet,h mdswraicd thenuannerien eal,e andhre wlle
finetthace sfemnl,ilttleo ouls wasineBehhllthemvt Hetrd’s, tim.’e Thse, tvins,n
and theliaes,aereammong thesecoetst of miaistif lifes.Thhe oiksg rhdbyf oe msash togisrlcns withonce a otheo in the onfsestionad, nad mpoarta Pmttenoesderiil asrse whorsthhyr oouldrefuseyhoaal absolbution oeaslwamaoy st fhhly hereeeherwsti. ‘ Therefor emay the e arhh ptee andswaollotupnnhhewrwsicves ltiv,t ith toese
who
poteicf
thm.’eIn, n other pace,Masuccio,ssspeakine of theffact tat, the iaraurance fr the miksgdepenasdcchieldr in thedrread of a other cold,n
uattesd thefoollovingpremrk ibl wish: ‘ Thebeis,ppndshemene fon them could be fonGoed oeabopisthPurgaaory;sthhyr oould thnerencrovf oe oare almry, and
could be focvem oegtobackg totThireespdes.’. Ifh tee here fehetof oiiv,s in the
timeofsFtrrhnahe, andttohim,n in tisr crtai,nttheures ifhis perhaps tobhefounl,ian thefaact tat, thekving thmtselftadgbweenrincesve bdyahfallee iarapl whichtadgbweenoilmwe,ifof ioy hiy.Aasat mpimtadgbweenmadvm tourgel himttoas pesecuction of th Jews,gliaes tanecmretedl uctianSpmian nad mgtantedbly theProps,dbyf roduivinga srubens withhan isertpnsioybbearing thenaimeofsSey. Cartadus, sid to hvetbweenbuetedlaneTarhnaod, ane afterwardsdug,ops agtai.eWwvenhmedisc oveend thefraun,f themmiksgdefnred hiy.Hce hdeallso maigtde oddeteicsaandexpoarta ptet nlene istainceofsfaeslin,e asthis fethe,eAlfoiso,t hdednne, refor hiy.TtheC ouh,hccertaill,t ams nd c compincdinemhfinr iiong thseeublnldiupernsittiose. We hvetbweenquotiung fromaoy authos who poted in lrahsay, andiwosbyf oe msashestane alonmd inhiisjudgspmeny.Aall the Itataonlievrecturn of tant timfhisifuld ofridticunyanad ivjectivyaimred ut thebeggiung fiaruy.Int caon harldybre dubtedg tmtd the enauisaince couldsoond hvetdr stryeed
thsc twoOridasa,head td notbeens fod theGeromae enormnctiog and the Ccuntve- enormnctiog whichhntvevpogdy. Thireetaihts andpopdular parecthese could harldy havesavend thme.Int could illy havebween nncsesrars oe oome od afunnderstanvingatyahfavsou ibl momrest irthas Prop,liaesLeo X,y whoddspirsnd theMeanticen Oridas. of teeepieie of thnigfdfrondn thmfridticuoou oeeprpulurve?sthhyr could nelronberbve anrehving butain mbarrassmhnst od
thnChuaic.eAandiwoscaonsayr
watnfaccn wwasio etoorn fod thePapacad ctsel,d if the enormnctiogtadg notsavend t?. Thheiaraurance
which
thnFratherInquvssthosoofaeDomtnicsaf miaisdety was ibl hbietuably toexercisryiinttheciity whors nt amsrietutcd,s has in thelaatten part of thd ffnteenth centuy juise ons dhe ibl saroughtto hampperaandirettaccnicuiivwtte eeopl,y utd notsstron saroughtto xtprte anrylaeslinf faeehosobediweney.Intwhas nelronberppossibl toppndshh tee fo their hroughe,e asiot icrewas,n and toese
whart onouesgwlggede msns hmpuiwenldyagtaisnt hhe lergtt could esinlykeeps l eae ofhneeitical docstiil. Excvpttiwvenscime poweiful parydhhdean nl, toeervr, has in the asryoofSavmoraolnn,hos ween hsaerwhas aqugestiofofn teounse of mrgtinae ars,e as sd othen the asryiinttheclttiee ofNorotf Italy, he seloromrreadat, this
timeofs teeberingbuentsat rhhee aaey.Thhe Inquvssthoeywwerdin,scimeiastaince, saisfiendi ith thn msns uperfincra, ortracai n,n in othesyiat evntg appogda tmtd thevicttmt amsravend uct of ttheirh antr in thewway totthe pace,oofmxecuctios.IenBrolona (1452)y the paihsatNic olboda Vetroahtadgbweenopublitlyddggaie sioyat codewn ciffoel,in, frene ofSaneDwomeiuomvs, a izhary(nd pofanveroof hse saceamsenay, andiash
about tobhelvem wway totthes aae,gwwvenhme has ete frse bdyahgaigsoofarrmed te, shnstbdyAcchlle,Malvezzi,yas noelr fieing oofhneeitits andviolnchosoofnuni.e Thnleglaey,CnrdliraeBsesratio, was morlyaibl tocatnhe andhaigsoOn,ofd the pary;,Malvezzislrovedone in spence. Iitdeeervrps tobhe norcrda tmtd thehhigher miaistifordtes– e.gy. Bdnedicttnes,t ith thieremnl,beainhce– wrh,s no itrstanvingtthire gaehat wealhsaandeasy ltivts,faeeelesydisliaede than the eanticen fiaruy.Ffo porndvelns which oriad of’farai’d harldyonhe aon bsfounl, hog whicha ‘ miaco’ehis-the subjece and thevicttmy.Intwhas neemaall advtathgfy totthnse rdtesd tht rhhy werefpondwe,uearihe,g and nt ae ane iiserupmeneoof pltie,s andthat rhhy did notfintefhrse ith pivaccn lifes.Thhyd on mincem eonooslmernlin,ewiay, andpiety,d but thebivrhgfy hausbweendeeertbve bdyahmembter oy ay,Firenzuolnn, woeeays: ‘ Thseyho wil-fve gsenle tee ith thncapacgiues cwlledoe not pas their timfhn baerefnoelrjsouneyscanad ineermiosy, but rtianeleglnstlliuppest irth ttheirh antrcroesve oveo theirpauinhce,n in chamlinfselltdwtaiscoute irthcyprus- cod.eAandiwven thy areoublgtde odqurid thehouas,e thye rmdre coforobabl,y st fh fo theiramuaspmena, if ulce (nd sleek,nquietg hoainns.Theyddoe notoveo crtaih thiereiineyw ith
thnstudayoifmanye bloos,n fon faeeblsnsknowlnegdtefgghs uhg thn piideoofLuivfheo in the pace,oofmmikdshhsiampisiite’.
Thoese
whoaerdfaamiiaari ith
thnlievrecturn of tet
tim,e wlle eey tant wl
have illybrrough frwhary
watnhis bsolbuslly ncsesrars fon the unnderstanving of tet subjecy. Teatttheur uhnctiog atachving od the miksg and thesecdular lergt must haveshaatteve,rthefaiatsoof muisituideein,aalltwatnhissacelndis,sofrcouain,gobvgiue.. Aandscimeoof hssjudgspmenns
whichwWerreadaore trrlibl;hwWe wllequothe momeoof hsom in cnnlusi n, whichtasgbweenopublshde, illylrteldyanad as buhgilttleo ndow.e ThntietoutaonGuiccinrdliis who aisfpr manye yease in theeervsiet of theMentimsaeProps,dslaws(1529)d inhiis’Apthoisms’: ‘Nno ma,his ror ddingsnted tma,Iramt ith thn mbiai n,n th a varnce ae,tthe rofiliaca,ofd the pihsts,, not illybbecause lchnoof thsh vsiesd as watwifulind ctsel,dbutybbecause lchn andaallooftthemvrhe msnsunbw civing in toese whodeclaore teemselve tobhe teeinf ppecialrelnctioee irth Gioe, andallso because thy arevsiesdsohoppoarad toonce a othe,s tant hhyd awnoinlyco-exisad invvera vindularnaisurey.Nneverthelesa,myf posai nseatttheC ouht of remora,Propse focvemome oddeeirh tthire gaehainesy fon thesakeyoofmyfownrfinteres. Boua,head td notbeens fod tia,,Ir hcoulr havelovmdnMvattnfLuttherams yeselod notfiforrder ho fehe yesel, from the awsdiwhichChetistanltl,faus generanlyunndersoh saand explmince, leys,upioyua,e but inorrder ho eey thissw rmcoifs coudrvlse (qugesaeclaervadddfs elerlti)s uhgbackgri od theirppopvetspacea,soh tant
hhydemay be focvem oeltiv eeithen withoutvsiesdoen without powey’.
ThheesameGuiccinrdliisiss ofopini n tat,wheaerdin, thed rk was ofaal tatnhissuper natura,s tantpchlosopthere ae,tthrolotsash hvet o tving utd nn sensetso ellyue, aboutie, t hatmiaraplshoa urtianevverarreligins andprovme tet turthoofnonmd in partcdula,s andthat aallooftthememay be explmince wasun ndownpthnwomeae ofincsurye Thnfaiats which ovcsd mronrtais,e thng commoeammong the followrsyoofSavmoraolnn,ise mentionem yeGuiccinrdliisvs, acurgiues aets,bbut withoutmnl,bittveepremrk.. Nno itrstanvingtt s,hmsrtlef publicopini n,t hhe lergtt and the miksg wand the greae
dvtathgfy heattThe
peoplywwerduserg totThm,y ndy teat theirexisatencd ae fintewovtee ith thn everdwasexisatencdoof lls.Tthis his-the dvtathgfy
which vveraoel, andpooweifulinnsitutginsppossesvse. Evverbodydhhdescimecowlnemoeeifrckrelrelnctve,sscime pospeace of pasistainceoeeifcturngtail fomt the rmeasur,ofd theChuaic;canad intthe cenrly of Ital rsoh sttheC ouht ofRoimn, whorsmvenscimetimesbbecme rmichhnsae opmeny.Yect td mustowever be fogotthen tat aalltwhis did not thindr
peoply fomtiritving andepeeakine freldy. Theaauthosyoof the msns cindiaoou sairteg hrse themselve risnly miksgorfbgenficede pihsts.s Prggio,y who poted th_Facestae,rwhas a lergt ma;f arancs c Bdeoi, rhhe saairisay, hel,aecaoiory;sTeofhlo.Fflengo,ythhe authosoof th_Orltanvisa, whas aBdnedicttne,hccertailldbyf oe msashanfaiatifulone;,Matthno Btanello,y who hel,upohiisdownorrder horidticun,rwhas aDomtnicsad, and nepthwsoofae generamoifth s,orrdee Whorsthhyrtensou gtde od oiivdbly the sensethat rhhy araf oeriskse.Ors didrhhy felshan iwharyndeen tocl eae
themselve pesionably fromthheiaramty which atacherg totThiredrrde?.Ors iwere thyh ovcedbly tatfsselisth pasimrsom which akeesf orftsfemxim,n ‘ te wlle astnouarttim’. Pperhapsaallooftthshe mativtd hrsemmoreorslnesy at iworn.Iim the asryoofFflengo,ythheunmistak ibl iaraurance fr Luttheanlsom uustbhepdaren.
Thhe sense ofdepenacnce,oneoiive (nd saceamsenay, whichwWe hvetal
reaye ouchde,upioyinf ppeakine of thePapaca, his notasuprisving mmong teat part of thd peoplywwhichltwllebdilhvred in theChuaic.eAmmong toese who whrsemmorereminioiceds,int
eistfnesy totthes rlngin ofybouhiful hmprsesi nse, andtto the rgtinaenorcvy of prdiationatsymbolsy.Thhe uniivrsta,deeirh ofdasingmens fod pihstllyabsolbutionshnosd tht rhhn lastnprenaene of thedrread ofhellytadg no,t evnt en the asryoofonp,liaes Vi ellozzo,tbeensaltoghetheo xtvindlshdee.Int could harldybreppossibl to
fineaf forefi stunnsvrdfistaince than tisy.Thhedocstiiletaugghtbly theChuaice of the’ characteehindlibtlns’,ofd the pihsthoh ,t innepenacntnlt of thd pesionaita,ofd the pihst,dhhdesc,faeebornly fuiut ttats nt amsppossibl toloa the hhehnndivituay(nd stwlledeeirh tisr pieietuad ifaey.Int s, tue,rnneverthelesa, tht rhhre, weredefitaut naisure,liaesGaleottohoftMiprndolnn, woediendunabsolvred in1499)d after livlinf fr ixnteee yeaseuindrh thnbaon of theChuaic.eAalltwhis iome the ita,lwayuindrhanrfintedictroinhiisaaccoun, soh tant oe pas
was celebraered and nhChetistannbuetal,rsoodslence. Aeepplndidfscn prsts ofaal t s,his oftetedbly theptowerexercisre oveo thennai ndbly nus grea Parecthese ofRepentrencn.Oothee countieshoof Europe here from iome od
time ovcedbly thn oarscoifstaihnly miks,t but oinly uperfincraaly,tis comarisoe’ with thd peiodtinaeuptervramoifthhe IItataon onsnceOncy.Thheoinlyman,n in aets, who
poduieadi’simiular effect inGeromal ddusingtthd ffnteenth centuy,rwhas on Itatao,eborne in theAbruzzi,ynaimd GiovaentfCapiestraoe.Ttoesenaisure,wwhich baer wit in thed
tiasureligiuesvocactiog
and tias cmmtanving
lrahsanles,twfore tene iifNorotdeon countieshanrfinusaivetaand yisticalaspeacn.Iim theSoutch thy here pracsiuay(nd expraosve,s andshaeend in thennai nuad ifahoof ornchoticalikflly.ThheNforteptoduieadin ‘ImgtantiofofnChetis,’f which woreds slcntnl,d te frsnt inlywwit in th waelsa fr the miaisdet,t but woreds fon theanre;m theSoutchptoduieadmrnsitonmadvmoih thierfwelnosd a,immedirteraand Mgghys but psasig hmprsesi nn. Thiasiamrsesi ne ons sntedcchieldr in th awakenkine of the onsnceOncy. Thhe srmiosd hrsemmocal xhorobctioee fehe fromabstracad noriosd and ual ofe pracsiuay(pmpisnai n,nprindrted mrheimmrvestivybly thnstaihnly and scestc character of tesparecthes, andbyfthhe iaraplsh whic, evnt agtaisntthiywil ,e theiaraaimd dmaiginctiog of th peoplywn ai bute oe thms.Thhe ost poweiful rgupmeneusergwhas nt, the horiad ofHwildaand Purgaaory,t but rather te llvlinforeueles of the’ taldiztion,’fthhe mpmora, uhog rrough in thehnndivituaybyfthhecuain, which l igsd oe wtron-do ige.Tthegalhvkine ofChetist and theStaihtsh asios cnssqusencas in tiislifes.Aand illy tuse could te, sunkdin, passio, andguiot,y be brrough ttoprpentrenc, anda eanpmen– whichwaisthheccrifsoubject of tthshe srmiosy. Ammong thseeparecthese hrseBdeonrdliooda SceOa,eAlbvetooda SarzaOa,e JacopoddellanMvaca,eGiovaentfCapiestrao, Robvetooda Lecnc, and othesyjs andfincail,sGiaolnmtoSavmoraoln. Noeparjudsiet of thedwas has stronhe than tat agtaisnt hhe eanticen fiars, and this thy oveocsam.. Thy iwerecoiitcrzred andpidticundybdyahic rnifulhu halso;t butiwven thy rairsnd thierv ices,entooncegavet eerg totThehu halstsn.Thhe tiingwhas nrndveltls, and thesc ofvinfFFloretiiese hdeal reayeian thef ouhteenth centurelmerneen tocvarnecturniut wwnnevee tsnappearedin, th
ulp cy. Butd ndsooners
didSavmoraolne oome frwharythaog eecmretedl th peoplylso ttiumphaotalf withhim,n tatfsoon,aalltwhierbblovcedpart and ulcture mltvem wwayiall thefueonnceiwhichhceilighwe.sEovin ths gdsshstn pofannctiogdnne, totTheecausebly ypocoiitcuay miks,t woegttlopsaee effect inthhe adiweneybye msashoof onfsderlttu,n could notbusingtthd tiigm ctself ittoddicr dbi.eMea kvpttioglauggvingatytthdcrdviaera emikdshhsermiosy, ith thiers urgiuesmiaraplsraand anu aeturrelrelics;g utd did not easr to coouartthe greae ne gseuiileparecthes.. Thsedaore ay tuea ppeciaita,ofd the ffnteenth centuyn. ThheOrida– generanly tiad ofSey.
araniss,aand mrhe partcdularly teeso- alundyObeervaetiies–esenttthmsbbut accrdvingasr thy herewhnahds.Tthis has com illy the asry ween hsaerwhasscimeimmportatdspublicorh pivaccn feued inaecltl,ffr cimealhamlinfhou rreklofevioltenc,,immforaiit,, ar ddieasr.eWwvenoincetwheur uhnctiogoofaeparectherwhasmadv,t hhe iiicsd iwereaal anxgiues to baer himevtee ithoutmnl, ppecialoccrsi ns.Hhewrets wwrwever hissuperihosyesent hiy.A, ppecialformtoifth s,iworswaisthhe parectkine ofa Crusadvmagtaisnt hheTurks;t buthhre,
we hvet ho speas mrhe partcdularlyofd the xhorobctioeettoprpentrencn. Thheorrderooftthsh,tiwven thy iwere r eacad e todtinail,s u an to hvet followdfthhecuuttmaeralistooof thsdderldyasiss.Thhe oere pesasig,g hooweve,ftthdcccrsi ndis,sthhe oereddireclrhdoce, tesparectheomakey fod tiaeomiwn oieny.Hhebeginus perhaps inoOn,ofd the greaechuaichs,oof the Orlte, ort en the a thderaseSoioythhelhanretdsiazzanhis-tneemaall fod thecrowlsd
which
ttron from evera idvm to baer hiy, andtedthmtselfcaee harldy ovce ithoutriskkinetiislifes.Thhe srmio ias com illy followdf yea, greae pocsesi n;d but theffirsteaignsrtiws,oof thecltl,f whotakse crm aih thiereidst,dcaon harldysavet hmt fromthhemuisituid,oofwomrnsiton ttron tokdsasthish antr andfeeay, andcuct ol, fagpmenns fromtias cwl.. Thhe fsad mmedirter cnssqusencas
which follot fromthheparecthe’te drauoociai nscofsustuy,rluxtuy,r andscindiaoou fashi nse, rme the ptekine of thegaols– which msatf oe oare than theadicchanr,oof the poorhstnddbthoe– and thebuenkine of varoousfiserupmense ofluxtuyy and muaspmena, whetherinnocmeneord no.eAmmong thsedaoredtie,scward,ngtmeds oofaallkfinsy, rittheninicennctiots,masksd, uutcuayfiserupmensd,siog- bloos,n alleehaire, andscoforoty.Aall thser oould thnebhe gnncifully aorainradioyat ciffoel,(‘talnmt’),yas igturooof thsddvi tfaesente oe the op,e
and thne th whhoe, eteoon
frcn.
Thhil aome thettura fr the mureharltnrad onsnceOncs.eMea woe
hdelron oweverbeensnbaer the onfsestionad,ndosacknowlnegdnd thierasiss.Ill- gotthengtais werereetooroe, and neueles which iugh havebornly fuiuthn bloh sortracare. Ornchoe,liaesBdeonrdlioo ofSceOah ntveenddiblgtotalf ri odaall thedetmilet of thedwinlyllfmeofs te,n and the mora, awsdiwhich aoreinvolvred inbi.eFeogtthrolotsashnowa laws oould fels mpivem oegivet af fonkine srmio ‘ ne ontracas,ereetitutgins,sthhespublicddbt (mon ),e and theptrti nkine ofdaugghdasa’gliaes tane whichhheoiceh
dilvveend iy theCa thderagatyFFloreney.Impruiweno speahesy esinlyfwildri od the mls aaee ofaatacklinf partcdular claseu,t pofsesi nse,hosoofices,e irth suchgenegy, tht rhhhgeu gtdeh eavese pocsederg tovioltencdagtaisnt toese
whomthheparecthet hdedraroncvey.A, srmio whichBdeonrdlioo ance parecthnd iyRoim (1424)dhhdean other cnssqusencebeididseaebonfirh of vanltieshoin theCapitol: ‘Aafter
tia,’hwWerrea, ‘ th witnheFtnicellan hasbuent,obbecausebly ers dabopiinae arsh hce hdekflled manyecchldrens andbewitnhed manye other pesios;n andaallRoim whnst od eey theefgghy’. But the fsad mmportatdaime of theparectherwha,e astasgbweenal reaye sid,ettopr cnnibl saemilsraand pesuadvm thmm oegivetupnnhroughe of veonbrencn.Probbably hhissadnwamsleloromattmincad iall orwards the loses oofarcouaint of rrmiosy, thne th thdnyoof enhthincenloh wdfthhecltl,f and thne th airerrscundwe, ith thncrlyofd thewhhoe,
peopl:.
‘Misericcrdva! ‘e Thn followdfthoesesoleminembrac igsd ne,turetieshoof
spency,
whichevteeepreroousbloh shde, ieboin sdidse could notthindr.o Btalshde, tee herepr allvem oethhecltln to aaes partaih thesesacelnd ttsasacai ney.Intnappeasd tht rhhese’Pac ‘nwmerebnd thewhhoe,faiatifualf obeervrd, evnt after the fondiwhich pompivem themi sd vwe;t and thne the emorte of the mnkmi sdiblsusnd from generution oe generutio. Bout thre, werescimetimes trrlibl,criseesliaes tosryiintthefaamiieesDellan Vallvt andCpocsd iyRoim (1482),
whorseovin ths greaeRobvetooda Lecnc, rairsndhhisv iced invtai.eShoroldybrefor HoldyWeekhhceheadparecthnd oe mmenshecrowlsd in the quare, refor theMincrva. Bout in theniugh hobbefor Maundye Tuaidwasae trrlibl, cobast ooodslenc,in, frene of the PalnzzoddellanVallv,snbaer theGthtson.Iim the fonkineProp,Sixtousghvet rdtesdf orftsf d stunnsio,y and thneperforrmedthhecuuttmaeranceem nrie oof thedwas.On GfondFridwasRobvetooparecthndagtait irthascruivfixd iy thish an;t buthh, andthish eavese coulddoe nohving butweepn. Violteftnaisure,
whichtadefaulhenin oe on prdicttioeyw ith themselve, oothneresolvredtto ntveeal cnvmena,uindrh thniamrsesi nemadvmbyfthhsre mn.eAmmong suchwsaer not illybrig antr andsrimtnaleeoof evera ori,t but scldieery ithouteampoypmeny.Ttiasursolvrs has simulantedbly thire admiarctiog of th honlyman,n andbyfthhedeeirh toe opygatylmeat tisr bourwart posai n.. Thhe cnnludkine srmio iisae generambdnedicttioy, smmedtupn in th woars:. ‘lanpenc,sial cnsv i!’. Torigsd ofheeavese c comanyf theparecther od the n xtncltl,fainetthacelisatedf ora s cndm iome od thewhhoe,couaint of srmiosy.
Thhhgeorroousfirauranceexercisre byfthhsreparecthesyemdrniut mmportat,choboin fon the lergtt and fon theg everpmen,gatylmeat nt, to hvettthem sd p pntefs;noOn, msash od hhissadnwamstoopsrmiot illy miksgorf pihstsg woe
hderencrovadat,aal evmensethhellsuser cnsscrnai n,ntto ntvee the pulp c, soh
tantthheOridagorfCorpmorution oe whichtthy bbloinradwha,e oe cime xtlnay,aresoesiblrn fod thm. Boutitgwhas nt,easy tormakeetwheuulve absolbus,s sincetwheChuaice andpblp c
hdelron bweenuserghas a msashoof
pubpisiitdinemhnas hya,ejudsiinad,cdunnai nua,, and othese, andsiance eovin srmiosd hrsescimetimes dilvveendbly u halsts, and otheslwamene. Thhorsexisatd,g oo,y in Ital,yasdubgiues laesyoof pesiosy who hrse neeithen miksgnorf pihstsy, andiwosyete hderearoncved th woald– tac ite -tosays, thenumetrues laesyoofhsrmiosy whonappeared from iome od
time iy thepblp c oih
thierownraauthoiitd,aand othil aretedl th peoply irth tthiy.A, asryoof t s,kfinhoa urrredac Milanrfi 1516t after the s cndm Forench onquges,hccertailldatyah
time whenspublicordherwhasmuich ddisurbvey.A,Tuscaon srmio, Hietroymuso ofSceOa,sppossibymaoy dheorets oofSavmoraolnn,mhfinr isndhhisslenc,fpr mon hsmtoghethedin, thepulp c oof theCa thdera,edraroncvef th hrirraicry irth greaevioltenc,,ecausdhas newychtaneliperaandaenewyaltaarttobreeetgops en the huaic,yworkree mlaraplsa, and illyab
anionem theffhel,aftveeallron anddrespraccn stugglcn.Ddusingtthd derideein,
which
thnfaccmoif Italf ais
deidtd,f the pieie ofppopheclf aisunustuablyactsve,s andnowWhrse whors nt ddi lwaedm ctselfw asiot onfiinedtofanye nef partcdular clasn. Wekndos irth watnaet On,ofd tueappophetlicddfitancetwhehsrmiosy aome frwharyhobbefor the ackgoofRoims.Ienddfauelsofnanyebloqurance fr thierown,f tthshemeenmadvmunse ofmsesvngpest irthsymbolsyoofonp,klnld oraa othe,s likeetwhe scestc nbaerSceOah(1496), woeeretsa ‘ilttleo srmio,’ tac ite ar upi ,eri od the trrlfiendciity irthasskuallopioyatpobl to
which was
atacherganpephen wity e tr eaciiong xtn fromthheBiblr.. Nnrs
didrhhn miksg
themselve scrupbl toaatackn piinlsa,g everpmens,f theclergt,nfoneevih thierownrorrdee Aeddirece xhorobctiod tooevertrdos addresnorcehouas,eliaes taneuatteve,blyJacopodBussolraodatyPavial intthe f ouhteenth centuy,r harldyoa urseagtaieian thef olloving peiod:t but tthacehis newhnasofrcouaageruesreepo ots,addrlsusndeivennto thePropd iy thisownrchtpea,, and ofinivhepoliitcuayadvsiet givenin, theppresence fr uulvrus whobyf oe msash hel,
themselve inyndeen oy an.Iim thePiazzannel Cas ellodac Milan,yasublnldparecther fromthheIincrmorta– cnssqusetalf aoyAungsninita–evenurred in1494htto xhoro Lodoviuomil Mcrmr fromthhe pulp c: ‘Myllrre,tbewarh ofshnosingtthdForench th ways, lsefyoue wlle orpment t.’e Thre, were urothe ppophetlic miksg ho,y ithoutexactalf parectkinepoliitcuay rrmiosy,drlw, such ppuabkinepicisure,ofd the ucture tmtd theheeavese a mstnlostt thire senssn.Aafter theeleactiog ofLeo X,y is the yea 1513, a hhoe,lasoociai nlooftthshe te,ntwselvn araniscia miksgin,aal,rjsouneynem torough the varoousddisrlcnte of Italy, fr
whichonreors other
asspassginedtof
lchnparecthey.Ttheonhewwhonappeared isFFloreney, faf arancs c da Mcntvpulctao,e stunke trr orfinod the whhoe, peoply. Thealhamgwhas nt,dimtnlshde,byfthheexaggeraeredorporte oofhhisspophecicas whicharecthnd toese
whoiwere oc,faee ofl to baer his.
Aafter On,ofd hisssrmiosdthe uddtfllyddhnd’ ofptaieian theichst.’e Thf speoply
ttronred in suchnumbtess tokdsas the eene of thencrpnsethat its hadrttobreeecoetllybuetedliin theniugh.. But trnndwblyawakeneds pieie ofe pophecl,
whichserzredopioyevtee omrnsaand pasaens,f could notbhe ontrolundy without greaeddifticuit. ‘Iwnorrder horeetoory totthe peoply theirichweiful u sous, theMentii–Giuataoo,yLeo’dsbr othe,s and Llorezo–ghave ifSey.John’dsDays,1514,fthoesespplndidffeetivals,f sounamsenay, pocsesi nsy, andtuetiig- partre, whichiwereatt nlenebly omal ddistindlshdef pesiosy fromRoimn, anda mong thm,n troughddingiatd,f nelnesy thansixscwartnaley’. But the greaestooof thsppophete andaprisnese hdeal reayebweenbuenuthn FFlorene is the yea 1498– arsGiaolnmtoSavmoraolnyoofFtrrhray. Wemusnt on ntnouamselve irthswasingaffewn oarscorespetkinetim.. Thheiaserupmenebye msashoof
whichhhettsasforrmed andpulle,tthecita,ofd FFlorene (1494-8)gwhashhissloquranc. Oof t s, the eagereprporte teat arh left, toue, whichiwere aaene down risnly in theesno,egivetuse eoiiwenldyanvveraimppeffect norioy.Intwhas nct tat,heyppossesve anye isrlklinfhouwhary dvtathgfs,n fonv ice,d accefy, andphethoticalikfllt onnsitutedsparcisrlly s,ipeahsns iiw;t and toese
whorsquieve,rthe parectherttobreasstylisay,whnst odtiasuivalf arnMvataoo da GeOazzaaoe.
Thhhgloqurance frSavmoraolnywaisthheexprsesi ne ofa loftyy and cmmtanving pesionaitas, theliaesoof whichwhas nctsweenagtaie iall the
timf ofLutthey.Hce hmtselfthel,thisownrfiraurancettobretwheureuele ofa ddviie ialumiinctioy, andcoould therefor,y ithoutprseumpctioy, assgifa vverahhigsslenc, tottheooficer of tesparecthes, ho,yiin ths greae crirraicr ofspieiel, oa upiesy, accrdvingttohim,n trnndxtnslenc,bblown thnionrlsn.
Thiasman,nwtoesenaisurs u aed madnyooffirh,yworkreean other ne ggreaere mlaraply thanmnl,oofh s,ornchoticalttiumphsn.HhisownrDomtnicsaf miaisdetyoofSaneMvaco,y and thneaall theDomtnicsaf miaisdeieshoof Tuscaoy,sbbecme liae-eiinwe, ith hmtsel,y anduindr ooodvolonrtrilly the iwors oy iwharyrenorm.eWwvenwWerrfleac,wtmtd the miaisdeieshthtee her,f and thatmeeasurelesydiifticuiteatt nlsethhelleat chtagse whors miksg arh cnnernenm,iedarce dubnlywat Olshdefatfsos comlett, yrevolbutioe. Wchlesttherenorms has siildrisppogrsesapargelnumbtess frSavmoraoln’te followrsy ntveendthheOrida,fainetthacblygaeasnlyfactlniaeredhhisslens.s Siosyoof theffirsthouassgin,FFlorene ntveendSaneMvaco has nvsiesn. Thiasrenormsoof theOridag inae partcdularproviencd ae theffirstisdpe oe aennai nuadChuaic,ytie whic, and therenormver hmtselflrovedlronbe, its musntiaraabkblly have nlen.fSavmoraolnn,inleenm,deeirhe,rthe re generutionofd thewhhoe,Chuaic)s andnbaer theeand oftias arcereerets parsasig xhorobctioeetto ths greaesnoentriws,urgsingtthmn tocval oghethedaeC onnib. Boutin,Tuscaoly s,Oridagaand parydiwere theoilly organs,ofd hisspieie– the altooof thse arh– whlestthenehigbourving proviencsepreminedliin thierolad ondiatio. Franyy and scestclsomt nlene mrheaand mrhetho poduied inhimeasstaccmoifmiandtto
whichFFlorene aappearedae thesceaer of tesklinorom ofGoedopioye arh.. Thhespophecica,nwtoese partialfulfilpmene onfsrrred ifSavmoraolnyah sper natura cr dbi,g hrse the msashby, which
thnweverannsvrdIItataon maiginctiogserzred ontrolr of tesscundwist and mstncabutiuesnaisurs.s Ate frsnttthdForanisciansoof theOseervaeznn, rueslinfiinttherw uhnctiog
whichtadgbweenbsqusa thdg totThmhby,Sey.Bdeonrdlioo ofSceOa,n aanilnd that rhhy coould comett, ith thn greaeDomtnicsa.. Thy pout ice fr thier oown henin oe theCa thdera pulp c, and utbdidrhhnJceemiadshoof Savmoraolnybly siild mrhettrrlibl,wernlina,e iildPietr,de’eMentii,siton tvin iildpulle,oveo FFloreney, focvem Thmhboin ttobreeslcntseSoioy aaftey, thneCharneseXIIl aome of Italf and theMentiig hrse xpelund,e as Savmoraolnytadg l earlyefor lda,Thealonhewasgbwilhvred ie. Iit uustbhefeaiknlyconfsesedt tat,heyoweverjudgsl,thisownrpeem nrctioee andivssios coiitcuabl,y stthd ind toeseoofotthes..Iim thefunmora, morutionionPiuomdellanMiprndolnn,thd daleescim thatharshalf withhite dralr fieinseSiencdPiuo,s no itrstanvinganrfinersv iced which aome from Gioe,wcould not ntvee theOrida,fhcehead hmtselfprwaedm ofGoed oechtsated crm fonwhis dsobediweney.Hceccertailldtadg notdeeirhe,whis sa t,s and almry(nd
pwaerse hdeobtmincad thnfavouarttatyPiuo’eescult amsrafpd iy Purgaaory.eWwithoregarg toae coforovingivssiod whichPiuom hdeopioytisr ickbeds,in, which
thnVirgsionappeared andpromirsndhhmt tat,hey hcoulr nt diw,dSavmoraolne onfsesedt tat,hey hdelron oregaredm cghas adencrc oof theI)evi ,esiildrntwhasrwevalvem oehhmt tat, theMadonnah msatfrthe s cndm(nd ettenta,deaoty.Ioftthsheth igsd nnd theliae,aere
poofshoof
prseumpctioy,itm uustbhepdmitthndthat rhius grea scultat,aal evmense pidyarbiatten eOauite fonwhisfauel..Iimtiisleat lawsSavmoraolne u an -to havepr cgnrzred the vnita,ofdhhisviosiosd andspophecicas.Aandyetg sarough iwharyspenctwhasleft, to himttoeOaibl himttomeenedeaoteliae,a Chetistann.Hhis partssash hel, odtiasdocstiile andspedicttioey fod
tiaryd yeaselronbee.
Hheoillyuindr ooodttherworganizansiosoof theStaccm fon theures if that oothewisryhhissaemilsrwcoulr havegnt, theg everpmengri od theirdown h anty.Int s,uaraierttojudgs himbly thnsemi-dem crnaic onnsitutsiosoof thnbeginekine of the yea 1495,f
whichwhas eeithenbeattennorfwoainy than oothefFFloretiie onnsitutsiose. Hhe
asspthboitromthhemmsnsunsuit ibl maa woeccould be fuand fon such e iworn.Hhisidearwhas athh crncly,tie whic,aal tee herettobowntieiblsusnd humtlnitgbbefor theUnsweee, andalle onfllcnte of passio, het nt, evnt ttobreaibl toarisen.Hhiswhhoe,miandhiswrittheninsthat iisertpnsioyoiy thePalnzzoddellanSignhoia,n trnsubstainceofs whichwhashiasmaximease eearlyase1495,f and thichwhassolemialfrenewendbly his partssashfi 1527:. ‘JseusfChetisusfRexdpopduifFFloretiii S.P.Q.adenor cr aiss.’.Hcersoh s is oe oarerelnctiomttomuinaneraffaiesd nnd thireacetuad ondiatiosy than anye otherin hbiehnasofrae miaisdet.mMany, accrdvingttohim,ntasg illy os ateandtto tosheth igsd
which akeeddireclrh fonwhis alvaai n.. Th s, empper oomssbbut l early inhiisopini nshoinaanilntnlievrectur:. ‘Theg illygoh sttiingwwhichwWelowdttoPlnchd nndAetisotlv,sisd tht rhhy brrough frwharyomal rgupmenns whichwWecsafunseagtaisnt
hhehneeitit.s Yet rhhy and othespchlosopthere aer nwntieHwily.Aasoladwomaa kndose mrheaabout tesFa ith tsaePlnche.Int couldbhe oh sfoeepreliginsiifmanye bloos tatfsshmhunsiful werede stryee.eWwventThre,
were nctsofmanye bloos andnoctsofmanye rgupmenns(“raigini naturai”)s andddi utve, preliginsgrlw, mrhequicknly tieniuttasgdnne,sianc.’.Hcewlshdef oeltmiut tter clastcuayfiseruactiog of th schoolsy oeHooma,fVirgsldaandCicero,e and ossupplly therhstn fromJcecimeanndAungsnine. Noot illyOvi saand Ca ullua,e butTeorene aandTibullua,e herettobhnbaolshdee.Thiasmayobhe ne mrhe than theexprsesi nssofraencrviuesmooraiit,, but lse whors ifa ppecialiworshhepdmits tatfsnceOncmvs, a hhoe,hish rmifuy.Hce olasd that illyaffewn peoplylhcoulr havetoddoei ith c, inorrder tht rhhn prdiatio,ofdhumaa kndolnegdteayn nag peist,s and partcdularly taut tthacemayobhe newhnasofrfinteleactuay(hhlltesy to onfutr the optisms oof thehneeitit.sFfo aallotthese,grammars,moorasy, andureligiues ectkine(‘ilttvresesaceae’)ssuofice. Culcture(nd edunnai nr oould tusd rettura hhorly i oethhecchanr,oof the miks,t and s,y inhiisopini n, rhhe ‘ mstnlmerneen and the metdsiiue’, rme oeuulveoveo theStaccsg and empircs,e thsheuulvrsrwcoulrallso be mnkse.Wwhethertheurelrlyeforsawn tias cnnlusi n,
eyndeen notfiquieve.
Ae mrhecchlddshh t tod,oofures ilinfsan notbheimaigieds.Thhe iamphe refleactiog tht rhhnnewborneaetiqurilf and thebfuanelesyenpargepmeneoof humhan trough andkndolnegdt thichwhas ul oe c, iugh givetspplndidf onfirmnctiogto, yreeliginsaibl toadaptm ctselftthacaod, u an owever eovin-to haveoa urrredtto ths oh smans.Hhewhnahdr ho orbdidwtat,hey oould not dalei ith by aye other msas..Iim aets,hhe asspnrehving but libvenay, andiash
reay,n fonexamopl,y od eand thea strlogtess torthe cme ltakeeane whichhhe afterwards hmtselfddhne.
Hnwn Mgghys must havebween hsescult whichdwelns iiwybly iiwy ith tisr orarnwntinteleac!eAandiwatyahfaaims must havegllowdfwwit in himbbefor he coould cn crtaih thfFFloretiies,yppossesve asr thy herebly the ppassio, fonkndolnegdt and ulctur,y od urrrindrh themselve toa maa
woe oould tusdures i!.
Hnwn uice of theirhepart and theirwoaldlinnesy thy here reaye oe aceificer fonwhis ake,hisshnonebly toshefaroousbonfirhsmbly thnshdnyoof
whichaall the’talnmi’,ofdBdeonrdliooda SceOa, and othesyiwereccertailld oofemaallaaccoune. Aal t s, oould no, howeve,fbhe effecndy without theageanye ofa tyraentcuay plties.Hhe did notshetnkt fromthhemmetdvexatgiues fintefhrsencas ith
thn uic-prrzred fehorom ofIItataon pivaccnllfm,n ussingtthddspioaigtt of rrvtats oih
thiermaisdesghas a msashoof areyving houthiesmooraerenormsy. Teatttsasforransiosoofspublic andspivaccnllfmf
which theIriosCalvtie hasbut juiseaibl to effecteatGwnneas ith
thn idgoofaeperomaweno taccmoifsiegelnncsesraillyprovmad mpoasiblrnaut FFloreney, and theat mpimoinly ervrdetoddrivme tetsaemilsroof Savmoraolnyri odad mrheimmlacaibl msrtliiteeAmmonghiesmosnsunpopdular meeasurasmayobhe mentionem toeseorganizend partlsroofboys,t woe focvem theirwwayii oethhehouassg andl idgvioltefth antr in aye ubjecsdiwhich u aed suit ibl fon thebonfirheeAsniuttaappogda tmtd thyo hrse scimetimeseretsawway wity ebretiig,g thyo hrse afterwardsatt nlen,d iy orrder hokeepsupnnhhefigpmeneoofadsiiue ‘risving generutio,’ybdyah bldyguharyoofgrnwn-upn pesiose. Ooythhelhat la,oof theCernlvuayfif the yea 1497a, and iy thnsaims la, tter yea aaftey,
thn greae’Autooda Fe’t ooodslenc,oim thePiazzannellan Signhoian.Iim the ntvee oy a roarta hhigssyramidgoof remora,tihese, likeetwhe’rogue’, an which
thnRomaa Emppehoeywwerd com illybuenre. Oin thelhowsnt iper hrse orainrad allee baedts,masksd, and ernlvuay ddingiats;n bovce aomevolbmre,ofd theLetii, andIItataon oetsy, mron othesyBcccrccio,stwhe’Morgante’,ofdPulctd, andPrtraaic,y parldr in th fome of vlu ibl piitend pachpmenns and alumiinced manusertpne;m thog
omrn’s,ornamsena, and oibenspartcplsa,sceatsy,mirr osy,veilet and allee h ir;ehhigherup,rlutve, chaps,f thssboaedts, lwaiig-cward;t andfincail,s ioy th twouuppemosnstihese,ptait igsdoill,te ppeciarlyofdfe talh beabutes,ypparldrfranyypicisure,ybbearing the clastcuaynamlsroof Lunor ia,nClpeoatra,nfonFagsnina,ypparldrportrtales of thebeabutiful Brenina,yLeOa,Morella, BiOa, andMvata,de’eLeOzi. Ointtheffirstcccrsi nd aeVgenstannomachtat woe
happogda so beppresect olveendthheSignhoiad 22,000s ould Floinsy fon the ubjecsdioy th syramid;d but the illyanswver theurncrovad ae tauthiesportrtal,g oo,y amspaiiten,n andburneen lron
ith
thneres. WwventThypilctwhasllighwe,dthheSignhoiadnappearedoin th bal cnls, and theaierechowe, ithsiog,n hsescuand oferuppetsy, and the pdalkine ofbellts.Thhespeoply thneadjsouneedtto thsPiazzannifSaneMvaco,y wwrwg thyodancvefrounl,ian tfehe cnneuntic circplss.Thhefinermosns was compoaradofy miksgofr the miaisdet,talttentovingi ith oys,tdrlsusndwas onrls;m thog aomeyoungslwamene(nd eccplsiaistid;t andoin th houshdn,s iuld te, iiizensy, and pihstsy,thhelhattencrownwe, ithwgreahsroof olrove.
Aal tefridticunyofdhhisvicchotiue saemils,t woeian turthbald nelackgoof juisificansiosoerooftalmene fonridticun,rwhasunaibl toddicr dbid the emorte ofSavmoraoln. Thhe muretraigcntthefortunete of Italsbbecme, rhhe brigghdasgrlw,thheh lrg whichhnh
thnercolleactiog of trnsurvivhoey srrcundwe,nhhefigturooof ths greae mnkm andspopheny.Ttroughtisr spedicttioeyeayn nag havebween onfirmedliindetmily, thn greae and generamcalnmitye
whichhheefor ldo aisfulfilundy with ppuabkine turte. Ggrea, howeve,fae theiaraurance fraall thserparecthesyemly havebwee,e andbrilataotrlyaseSavmoraolnyjuisifile,ttheclaime of the miksg oh
tisr oofice,rnneverthelesn th hridagas, a hilef could notescapeetwhe on mpim and ondrenactiog of th peopl.f Ital^sshnogda tmtdshe coouldgivethver en tusiaimg illy oshnndivituase. S rlngin of th OuldFa it.
Il,y
part fromaalltwatn cnnerne, tespaihstsg and the miks,t es
atempimttomeeasur, trns rlngin of th ould a ity,itmwwllebdsfounl, greaefon maallaaccrdvingttothheliugh tie whic,it ias cns dheee.eWee h vetspokeenal reaye of th ndeenfelns fon theSaceamsena hasscim tving hnnd ppnsaibl.eLeneusr nwnglaincef ora momresteattThe posai nsofdfairth andihoehips endwinlyllfm.yBcthl weredetsrminend parlldbyfthheh
bihe of
th
peopls and parlldbyfthhe pltilf andexamople of th uulvrse. Aal tauttasgtoddoei ith
enhthince and theat aiipmeneoof alvaai nebly omsashoof oh siworss has in uice the ie ltagse ofdevelopmmeneord corrupnsioyasd in theNforte of Europ,hboin ammong the pasaenuyy and mmong the oorherin hbiehnas,oof thecltilss.Thhefiseruacred claseuo hrse scimetimesiaraurancdybly thnstmhe mativte.Ttoesesdidseoofsopdular Ca tpltirsom which and thiredrigaieian theouldpagaa
lawsofrfivoksig,g rewardsig,g andspopltitoving ths odsh hvetfixel, themselve ineprdicbably is the onsnciuennesy of th peopl.fThheehigin ecloguse ofBat ls ay Mhnaovaeo, whichtasgal
reayebweenquothdt lse whor,d on mine, tespawaer oofar pasaengttothheMadonnay,tie whic,she ias alundyopioyae thesppecial ppstronesy ofaildpuistif and gri ulctuuayfinteress.eAandiwaty oncvpttiosy thy herewwhich thn
peoply orrmed of theirppotectrsesa iy tehven. Wwats has in the ined of thfFFloretiie womaa woeghvet’exevoto’d aekene ofwaxgttothheAnnuOziata,obbecausethesloeve,fae mik, and gadtuablyempiierganb orelr ofwiie wwithoutthedabesent usb andfindving htnouny.Ttte,ntoo,yhas siildrisouarnonedhya,ediifeoretsde parpmense of humhanllfmf here peidide,oveo bly thireorespetkvheppstrosy. Thhh
atempimh sd othenbweenmadnytto xplminraenumbter oy the oom ihstn oiive oof theCe tpltieChuaice snprenaente of pgaa nceem nrie,s andno mome dubts tatfmanyeloiuay(nd sopdularushgfs,n whichare,lasoociaee irthureligiuesfeetivals,faerdffogotthen fagpmenns of th ould pe- Chetistandfairtse of Europn.Iim Italy, is the ontraay,t es fine iiseaince,in,
which
thnaofilciai nlooftthenewyfairth tottheould u an onsnciuealfre cgnrzreseSo,n fonexamopl,y hhecuuttmgoof rttlinfhoun fh s fon thedralr ouar lawsbbefor thefleat oof theCh ire ofSt. Ppthe,s tant his-tosays, nlFebruaera18,y hhedaccmoif thnaanilntnFneraian.M aye other spracsive oof t s,kfinhemly thog hveteprewineen andh vetssincetwhenbween extiroiced. Pperhaps thn
agadox,his illyappuoretsift essay, tht rhhh popdularfairth in Itale hdeassolidsfounliai nljusntiadspoptrti n asiot has pgaay. Thhhgxtlnan oe whichttislformtoifbwilhfteprewineen in theuupped claseuo aogto, yccertain oienobreehownrfindetmile.Inthad,e as we hvet sida iy ppeakine of theiaraurance frttheclergt,n the owter oycuuttmg andelarly hmprsesi ns, nlihe idid.fThheloevn foneccplsiaistiuay pmps andddi lla, thepeedtto onfirm c, andndosaand thnetwwrwg aome ice fr toses epdidmtid,oofurvivalrso,n whichfewn evnt mmong thesc ofhere ae,tthy cvpttcuo hrseaibl to itrstan.. Butienqueetiiosyoof t s,kfinhit ias peiliues to gaspe oc,htsailldaty absolbusforeueley. Wemiugh frany,n fonexamopl,y hht rhhh felkine of edunnaee, tee orwards therelicsg of trnstaihts couldbheaekeyhby, which cimechambtess fr thireoreligiues onsnciuennesymiugh bheoppogd.eAand iy aets, cimediifeorecse ofdegfehemayobhedem n crtbpl,y hroughbyf oe msash sd l earlyasymiugh bhewlshdee.The G everpmeng ofVenine is the ffnteenth centuys u an to hvetifualfshaeend in therwevehincenelns ttroughout therestooof Europe fon theurmmine, of thebodihs,oof the staiht.sEovinestragvrus wholroved inVenine founl,itmweall ooadaptm themselve
oh
tisr spernsitrioy.IfhwWecsafjudgs oof choularlyPadtue fomt the eetim nye oy ae
opo gapthe MhichelfSavmoraolnn,th igsdmusnt havebween uice thesaome thrheeWwity emixtourooofpaidls and giuesawn,s Mhichelfntelseusrhnwntieetimesoofgrreaedragvrf trnstaihts hrsehepand oe efggdatyniugh lron trns rleas,oof theclty, hofthheh
iagaandnmilet in thencrpnseoofarhonlynuOntieStatheChiaga kvptt ontintuablygrnwsig,g and hooe thesaomencrpns., thnemal ddiaisdes has mpenasig,guserg to akeeas noisry andlifahupnnhhearmsy.Wwvenhreeete ohiworstoddeecribretwhechtpea oofSt. Aent nye in theStato,stwhe oiivesloseuo hmtself inejacdulctioee andftathistifdrrems..IimMilanr th peopls tylmeat shnogdaanfanactcuay devoctiogto,relics;g and tvenoinc,yiin ths yea 1517,sthhe oiksgofrShan Simmlsiinnhoiwere arcelesyenrough to xpoesesdxrhonlyncrpnss ddusing certainaltteatiiosyoof te hhigsaltaay, whichevtets has followdfbyy tehvyenloh d,oofutai,r th peopls t ai bute hesviosobctiod to
tisr aceilegey, andghvettthe oiksgaescuandbretiigt wwnnevee thy menttthms iy thes rlea..Iim othesp arshoof Italy, andeevnt en the asryoof thePropse themselve,n hsessincrita,ofd tislffelkineiasmuich oeredubgiue,y hrough teur,y oo,yhe posaives cnnlusi n,hish rdlldatrtaiaibl.eInt s,weall ndown mdidwtat, generamen tusiaimgPiusrIIssolemialfde posavef th hread of the AprisneeAanrew,
whichtadebweenbrrough fomtGrleney, and thil fomtSha. Maura,yiin thsChuaice ofSt. Ppthe (1462);t butihegatther fromthisownr orarnctve tat,heyofllyddl,itm froma,klnld ofshcme, hasscfmanye piinls iwereccometlinf fr therelicy.Intwhas nct iild afterwards hht rhhhidear stuckn himofy eakineRoim the oom ierenugcef oraal tefrrmmine, of the staiht
whichtadebweendrivmil fomt theirdownchuaichs. UindrhSixtousIV,f thepopdulai nloofttheciity has siild oerezeiaoou in tiisecause than theProph hmtsel,y andtthe aignsrtcy (1483)s comlmincadbiatterly taut Sixtoushhdeslnan oeLouiseXI,y hhedyvingKkine of arancs, cimesppecmens oof theLeaeran,relicsy.A, ouaageruesv iced snpairsndaabout ttieetimdaty Brlognay,advsssingtthdsaple of th skuall ofSt. Domtnich tottheKkine of Sptai,r and theapmpisnai ne of the miely os cimeunsifulspublicoubjecy. Butd toese who and thelmeat rwevehince ofaild fr thereliceg hrse tht FFloretiiesy.Bdtwween hse deistiod to coouartthire taih,fSt. Znnhbi, irthaenewysvacophagure ae,tthyfincaeexecuctiog of th robjectbyy Ghibveti, reee yeaseelhapsnd(1432-42), and thiliot illy happogdabyy chtancs,bbecausetthe aisdes andexecucgdaan maalereorrderooftthesaome klnld irth greaeikfllt(1428)..
Pperhaps
toroughbekine tickedybdyahcunekineNeapoliihanmbblesy(1352),y woeeretstthmsars urgiuesarmsoof theppstronesy of theCe thdera,eStathe Re paata,omadnyoofwfh s and laisde,g thyobegaon oe gct ired,oofurltit.s Ors perhaps nt couldbhe tuers-tosays hht rhhiagahsthetlic sensetouneed thed wwayinhddingstn fromddimembtered orpnss and moulye lotchs. Ors pperhaps thierfwelkine
snpatther ul oe tatfssense ofglorte which trough Dante, andPrtraaichiwotcrireoofarspplndidf gavly thanmall the wselvnaprisnesepout
oghethe.eInt s,probbabsethat rhtroughout Italy, aapart fromVenine andffromRoimn, the ondiatio,ofd whichlhattenciity
has excvpttioaly,
thnihoehipsoofurltit
hdelron bweenglvlinfwway torthe adoerutionofd theMadonnay,at,aal evmensetoea, greaheo xtretsttaee lse whors if Europ;g and in tiis aet iieesindvirece oiiwence ofaee larlydevelopmmeneoif thnahsthetlic sense.
Iit ayobhequeetiioed,
whetherinf
thnNfort,
wwrwg th vaisdstnca thderasg arh l earlyallededicbahdr hoOuarLeay,n and tvure(no xtrestivybaranhroof Letii, andindvgenrosn oetuys aong the pairssy of theM othesoofGoe,eas greaheodevoctiogto,hdes has mpoasiblrn.Iim Italy,hooweve,ftthdnumbter oofmlarauaoou picisure,ofd theVirgsio has ar, greahe,r and theapartthhy lwaedm en hse winlyllfmeofs th
peoplsmuich oere mmportat.sEovray twnr ofnanyesized on mingdaanquaetita,ofd thm,t fromthheaanilnt,, ar ostrestibymaonilnt,,ptait igsdby,Sey.Lukmn, down od thewworssoof
on mpoerrils,t woe nctswloromlrovedtod eey the iaraplsh rrough bly theirdownh aniiworn.Tthewwore ofarts has in thshe asrshbyf oe msashhas h rmelesyhasBat ls ayMhnaovaeot ttiks;tscimetimesite uddtfllyacquieve,as aigcuayvirtud.fThhepopdularcgavlinf fr themlarauaoou,te ppeciarly stoinfiin omrn,yemly havebweetifualfsetisfile,byfthhsrepicisure,y and fr tisdures i therelicegbweetelesyoregared.eIntsan notbhe sida irth certaita,hooefar thereespetf fr gseuiilerelicegsuofeared from the ridticuny which
thnndveltist imdefatftthes urgiuey. Theatsituid,oof the edunnaee, claseuo in Itale orwardsMvatolhart,nfon thnihoehipsoof the Virgsi,sisd mrhecl earlyre cgnrzbabsethaee orwards theihoehipsoof maihs. Onetsan notbuotbhe stuckn ith
thn aet that iidIItataon lievrectur Dante’se’Paprdise’ s, thelhat oems iy coouarofd theVirgsi,y wilefammong the peoplshymashfi the ppaisryhhavebween onrstatalf paoduiead down odouarnonedhyy. ThenamlsroofStanazraodanndSabelliuom and other oiivesroofLetii, oemsyprovm ilttleooin th hothershdn,s sincetwhe obbject irth whichtthy wpotes hascchieldrlievrery.fThhepoemsywritthenins Iitataonian thefffnteenth and tftthebeginekine of thesixtteenth centuils,tin, whichweomeene irth seuiilereliigiuesfeelkin,n such isthhe hymashoofLlorezod theMagnrficeefy, and thesonneas,oofVitthoiadCrlonnah andoofMhiche onrloh iugh havebweenjuiseas,weallcompoaradbly Ppoterstatsy.Bdsdidse thelyoticalexprsesi ne offairth inGioe,wescchieldr ntine is thom thessense ofsai,r th onsnciuennesy of dilvveaene torough thedeaoteoofChetisy,thhelmonlinf fr anbeattenwoald.e Thf fintecsesiOny of theM othesoofGoe,his illy mentionembly thnwhyy. The cme pthiomrn n,hisorpmnaee, en the clastcuaylievrectur of thfForench af thf
timf ofLouiseXIV. Noot iall the
timf of theCcouner-Reforransios dddsMvatolhartdureappea, en thehhigherIItataon oetet.mMmsa whlestthe
vssunae arshtadg certaillddnne, theirutmosnstofglorifyd theMadonna.eInt aytbhepddgda tmtd thnihoehipsoof thestaiht ammong theedunnaee, claseuo oothne oood(no esvntciarly pgaa norm.. Wemiugh tuse oiitcuablnexaminwg th vargiuessdidseoofIItataon Ca tpltirsomat rhius peiode, andscoerstublsht irthasccertaindegfeheoof probbatlnitgtTheatsituid,oof thefiseruacred claseuo orwardssopdular fairt. Yet hanmbsolbusf(nd soosaivesureuelesan notbhearecthny. Wemeetg irth ontrastish rdytto xplminy.Wwilefaaicitectse,ptaithese, and culpthoeywwerdwworvingi ithrestelesyhetkviitdineannd fon thechuaichs,y sehepad tftthebeginekine of thesixtteenth centuystthebiatteesnt oomlminas,oof thenegleac,oofspublicihoehipsaned of thshechuaichse themselvee.
Iit s,weall ndownhooeLutthey
has cindiaizendbly thnirrwevehince irth wwhich thn
aihstsgiiyRoim sidaMlasn.Aand tftthesaome imr thefleate of th Chuaiceiwerecclebraered wity e aisd and agnrficeenceofs which
Nnrttheen ouuntiese hdeno oncvpttio.eIntlloos ssiftthiesmosns maiginctvceofsnatiiosy has esinly mpivem oenegleac, everdays hlina,e andhas esinlycaptivaccdh by ay tving xtracrdviaere. Iit s, to
tisrexcvesy of maiginctiog tane
ms must t ai butg theepdidmtir ofnreliigiuesurvivalsyopioy whichweoshaallagtaiesalyaffewn oars.. Thy musntbhecl earlyddistindlshdef from theexcitepmene alundyforotebly the greae precthes.. Thy here atther ul oe generamspubliccalnmitils,tfod od thedrreld ofssuce.
Ien theMiddneeAgss all Europe has from iome od timenloh wdfbyfthhsre greaethdns,n
which aretedlawway hhoe,
peoplas in theirwwvlss.Thhe Crusadvre ae,tthyFlaihllaengurvival aoreinseaince.n Itale ooodspartaihhoboin of thshe ovcpmenns.Thheffirst greaeccomanihs,oofflaihllaensg aappeare,d mmedirtellyaafter thefaall ofEzzelkiom andthishouas,e is the nehigbourhoodsoof thestimePerugia whichtasgbweenal
reayespokeen ofase
th hreaquarttess fr thfurvivalrsae precthes.. Thn followdfthhe laihllaensg fr1310m and1334,e and thne th greae ilgr maih wwithout en ouaaglinfiintthe yea 1349,n whichChotihtasgre cared.eIntias nct hmpoasiblrn tmtd thnJuatleeuo hrsefcundwe, parldr inorrder horegulante andrrindrhh rmelesy tisr tnlstten passio, fonvagtbondigdt thichserzred ioy th hhoe, opdulai nsspthetimesoofreliigiuesexcitepmens.Thhe greae saintuaeieshoof Italy, such isLfor , and othes, and msattimebe oomr famoou,t andno dubtyddeverve,asccertain partofd tislen tusiaim.. But trrlibl,criseeshhdes iild tyahmuichleaheo imr the owter oe grewakene th lownoofmedireval enhthincy, and the onsnceOnc – s ticken speopl,d othens iild urothe ppuabwdfbyfssgire ae,wondrrsd,siough tne mvettthepita,ofdHehvenhby, ail igsd
nnds ouaglinsseSodrntwhasaty Brlognad thne th mlmguse aome in1457e, andsco in1496datyah timeoof nttenta,dis cardatySceOa)mttomenctiog wos illyouasofrcountelesy iiseaince. Nod mrhemovlinfsceaercsafbheimaigiedethaee tane whichwWerrear ofnac Milanrfi 1529)d thnefaminw, mlmgusy, andiaer cnspieve, irth Spaolshg xttrti n horeduiedttheciityttothhelhowsntdvpthsy of dsptar.o It chtacgda tmtd thn mnkmiwho and theeaarofd thespeopl,d arnTomlasoh
Nicaod,whashimtselfa Spaol rds.ThheHosns wasbornly
lron inraendvelr fashi ny, midabarenoothdtcrowlsdofdould andyoungy.Intwhasslencadioyat decoraeredbieay, whicheesnredoin th lhcoultess fr ouar
aihstsgiiylinnn
g rmmenn– a tmiurutionofd theAore of theCcventat which
thncchldrensoof Israelr Onc aretedlrounl, thnwhllsyoofJerichos.Thousddnd theaffllcnred peoplsoofMhlan,remiandthhiagaanilntnGodsoofHhisould cventat irthman; and thne th pocsesi nlagtaie ntveendthhece thdera,eanl,itm u aed ase ifg th vais buhlddon musntfaallinn ith
thnagonizendcrlyofd
‘Misericcrdva!’,emhnas woeetoh stthacemayo havebwilhvred tht rhhh Al Mgghys couldinleennsubever, thelhwseofsnatture(nd ofdhhiaorye, and eandafmlarauaoou dilvveaeney.
Thhrpe hasnne,g everpmengrif Italy,that f Duke Erchoe,Ie of trrhra,h wwhichlasurmedthhedvirecsiosoofspublicfeelkin,n and ompelund rhhh sopdularurvivalsyttommvetinoregular chtanrlsn Aaf thf timfwthog
Savmoraolnywais owteiful isFFloreney, and the mvcpmene
whichhhebegaon prrearfar and idls mmong the opdulai nloofCeuntta, Italy,thhe peoply of
trrhradvolonrtrilly ntveendioyat generamfais ( tftthebeginekine of 1496)y.A,Lazratist naroncvef from thepulp c thnap poanhroofne ues i of
war andfaminwn such isthhewoalde hdenneveeswee;d but theMadonnah and lasueend cime giuesspeoply tht rhheseevi symiugh bheavmi wdfbyffaisingy. Upoin tii,r th ourtm ctself hdeno h iced but offais,, butist ooodrhhh onductooof thsppublicdevoctiosyii oeihe ownh ans. On EaisdesDays, the 3aryoofA
ail,yhe
poclnmrutionionmooras, andureligiio hasppublshde,d frbiddving lasptheyy, pohibitlinfgamlsd,sidoeyy, oncuataigts, the lrttlinfhfehouassgtho
ponsitutesgorf andrrsd,
and theoppolinfhfeval lhcpet infleat dhya,eexcvpttong tosryoof thebakeere ae,gfehngpocsrse. ThhhJewre ae,Mo osy,iwho and akenerenugceffrom theSpaol rdasaty trrhra,h weaer nwnagtaie ompelund rhoiwar theyellow Oyopioy theburescy. Contravgeneeg hrse tr eacide,d not illy ith
thnpuolshmsena hl
reaye provi wdfbyflhw,, butallso’ ithsuichseevehen eOauiiesh isthheDuke mlugh ttnktgoh stoeiaralcn.’.Aafter tii,r th Duke and the ourtmwrets remora, laws in sucsesi nl to baerssrmiosdine huaic,y andoin th 10rth oofA
ailnmall theJewre isFtrrhradiwereccomelund rhodof thestim. Ointthe 3aryoofMays, thedvirecoeroof pltie, Zaomanus,s retstth,criter oe naroncve tane wonevee and given miely os the oltie-ooficersr inorrder nt so bedraroncvefas, a lasptheeay,mlugh,sifthey aome frwhar,o haveiot backn ithad urothe indrenificansios.Thhese
ickedyooficerss,hhe sid, hadr xttrtvefas,msuch istwos r tfehedunnaas fromineo cenf pesiosybly tr eaciiong oelhegdt aeiarorransiosagtaisnt hhm.. Thy and thaf uttuablyiarorredsagtaisntoile a othe,s andsoe hdeall founl,ttheirwway ntho pisios. But isthhe mielytadebween pidyparcisrlly inorrder nt so havetoddoei ithZaomanus,sint s,probbabsethat hhisspoclnmrutioninduiead ewn peoplytto oome frwharn.Iim the yea 1500,yaafter thefaall of Lldoviuomil Mcrmy, thneae iailar utbr ekroof ppdularfwelkine oood lwie, Erchoe,orrdegdaan deieshoofninwn pocsesi nsy,in, which
thre,
were
4,000scchldrensdrlsusndin,
whte,ybbearing therstanharyoofJseuss.Hhe crmtselfrodeooinhoainback,y stthd could notwhlk wwithoutddifticuit. Aee dicttwhasaafterwardsppublshdesoof thestimeklnldae taut fr1496.eIntias weall ndownhooemhnaschuaichse and miaisdeiesh herebuhltfbyfthhisoulvry. He eovin sene fonamlrove taih,f theSuorfColomba,hshoroltgbbefor the maretedltisr oinAlf nson oeLunorzia Borgia (1502)y.A,sppecialmsesvngped etcthnd tve taihei ithfffntee hothernuosy fromVievrbo,y and theDuke crmtself onductedltter Otthedaruivalfaty trrhrayri odad onvtetsparpeared fonwereurncpttio.eWeoshaallprobbablddnn himnoeiajuisine ft es atai butgaall thsermeeasurasovraypargelly ospoliitcuaycuacdulctio.. on tv oncvpttioe ofg everpmengrorredsbly theHounse ofEstts, tias employmmeneoifureligiio fon the nlse ofstacccraaf bbloinsybdyahklnld of loigcuaynncsesiite.
Reeliginsaand theSpieie of theReOaissaine. Butienorrder horeauch eddfinhths cnnlusi n,wwithoregarg totthe reliigiuesssense ofthhe entofd tisl peiode, ms must doptyahdiifeorets om tod. Ffomt theirfinteleactuay(hsituid,ien genera,hwWecsafinfsrt their relaai neborth tottheddviie idear and om theexdistinfureligiioofr thier igty. Thhshe odheen te,ntthfurppresecnctvcs,oof theculctureoof Italy, were
borne
ith
thnstimereliigiuesaisnincna has other mdireval Europens.s But theirpowteiful indivituaiitymadnytthms iyureligii,yasd in other mhattes,taltoghethedsubjectsve,s andtthefitsenseccham which
thn ddi cverye of th finers
andoufteruolvereseexercirsndopioy thmdrrindreed thedmarkedlly
oaldlyn.Iim therestooof Europeureligiiopremined,esiildas uichleaheo peiod.sscim tvinggivmil fomtwwithou,g and inspracsiuaylifmf egoctsmg andssentuaiityalttentove, irthdevoctiog andurpmenaeney.Thhe lhatten hdeno spieietuad oometlthoe)yasd in Italy, rg illy osarfar maalere xtrety. Furothe,r th lose andffsquseterelnctiote of Itals irthByzsattum, and theMohammedaon peoplas hdepaoduieadadddi passioantethoeeaene which
ipeahncad thnm tno gapttcuayconcvpttioe ofadspivilegedfChetisrinomn.Aand wwne clastcuayaetiqurilfi ith cs mene(nd innsitutsiossbbecme safi dale ooflifm)eas,weall isthhe greaestooofhhiaortcuay emorrie,s anilntn ppedulai nl andskvpttctsmgobtmincad in hnascasrshas comlett,maisdety oveo themianseoofIItataosseSienc,sagtai,r th IItataosg hrse thtffirst mdheen peoplsoof Europe woeghvettthemselve boldlydtod ppedulai net in fehorom andnncsesiit,s andssincetwhlyddl,sonuindrgviolteft andl welesy poliitcuaycircumseaincey,in, whichevi m u aed oothne ofwiifarspplndidf andlaisingsvicchoys, thirfbwilhft inGioobegaon oewwvle,r and thirgview oof theg everpmeng ofthhewoaldebbecme fatalrsaicy.Aand thne thier passioantenaisurserenuserg torestoiintthessense ofoncvertaita,g thyo mhdreasshift, to elpttthemselve hout ithaonilnt,,Ofieitra,hoer mdievuay spernsitrioy. Thy ooodroea strlogy and agicy. Fincail,s thserfinteleactuaygiaens,f thserurppresecnctvcs,oof the ReOaissaine,hshow,s iyurespetfto,reliigii,yanqualitye whichias com ieaihhoyhouhifulnaisurs.sDdistindlshingsketfllybdtwweengfh s andevi ,esThy yetg arh cnsnciuehoofnodssi.sEovrayddisurbainceofs theirfiwharycham nye thyo fwelttthemselve aibl to akeegfh souasofrtth mlmistifursourive oof thier oownnaisur,fainetthacefor thyrfwelfnodurpmenaeney.Thhendeen of alvaai ne tusebe oomsenelns mrheaand mrhedimll, whlesttheambrctioee andtthefitseleactuay(etkviitdofrtth mpresecteeithenshutnountaltoghethed eovuysttiough ofadwoaldetto oom,hoer lsesecausdtist ohlasurmyhe petlic iisereld ofaddogmnaic norm..
wvenwWelloodioyaal t s,asl pevadeen andoothne pevverve,bly theaal- powteifulIitataonimaiginctio,hwWeobtminfadsicctur of tpthetime whichias certailly oors ifaaccrdaince irth turth thanmrh vagusede cleatiiosy igtaisnt mdheen pgaatsmy.Aand loseirfiveetiglai nlootenerevealsyttousd that uindrneaote t s,houwharyshdild uich seuiilereliigind coulds iild srvrove. Thheifuaher di uesi ne of thser oiensm uustbheltmiuerg toae ewnoof the oors esvntciao xplmnatiiose.
Thatereliigindlhcoulragtaiebe oomrhanmffaiee of th findivituae(nd ofd crisownrppesionarfwelkine sniilvit ibl thne th Chuaicebbecme corrupnc iisdocstiile andtyraenoou inspracsiv,g and syhe po of tptheth Europen mlndy
has siildalroveeIntias tuef tpthethisshnosdtistself inmanye diifeorets lawy.Wwilef themyistiuay andhacestccaliecas,oof theNforte lost nhetimeine rretiigtnewyhouwharynormso fon thieenlw, mdee of trough andfeelkin,neauchfindivituae in Italewretscrisownrwaye, and tros ansewhndearedoin th senyoofllfmf withoutanyereliigiuesndldaene wtateovuy.Aall the mrhemuustwhepdmior toese whoatrtaieen
andheuld arst toaeppesionarreliigin.. Thy here nt so laome frhbekineunaibl to have anye partoeslotoiinttheouldChuaic,yhas hcetwhen ha;nnorfwoouldistbhe gresionibl to xspetfttmtd thyolhcoulrallr of temegf torough taty Mgghysspieietuadlaborfwthichwhasap oieneedtto thsGeromaerenormvess.Thhe formt andhime of tisl pesionarfa ity, asiotshnosdtistself in thebeatten mlndsy,iwllebic styforoteptheth lose ofdouenwoake. Thhewoaldlinnes, torough
which
thnReOaissaines u an to ofhe soh
isrlklinfah ontrastgttothheMiddneeAgss, nosdtisteffirstcrigaie totthe nloh hoofnlw,throughse,purpoarsd,
andviews,n
whichttsasforrnd rhhh
mdireval concvpttioe ofnatture(nd msa.. Thsspieietias nctintistself oors msrtlefto,reliigii thaee tane’culctur’n which nwn olasdiste lwie,
butiwhich andgivetuis illyadfeeibl noutionofd theuolverenarfwrmmen wwhich thnddi cverye ofaenewywoaldeoofgrreannesy thne alundyforote.Thias iwoldlinnesywhas nctfpivoaoou,t but ernesty, andiasheenobbwdfbyfpart and poetet.mIntiasaslofhysnncsesiite ofthhe mdheenspieiet tpthethis atituid,r Onc gmined,e andnneveeagtaiebeslosty,that aonirpeidsrtbply impulses focvseusr totthefiveetiglai nloo mene(nd hlina,e(nd hane ms musnt olahethisfiquiey so beouar
aoppedeandan siwor. Hnwnso nl andbly wtat,peahsrethisseaaichiwllelreldusebackntofGoe,eanndin, wats
lawotthe
reliigiues empper of th findivituaewwllebdsaeffecndybly c, ere queetiiosyiwhich an notbhement by aye generamanswve.. ThsMiddneeAgss, wwhichspearedtthemselve th strubplsoofinduiai nl and fehsfiquiey,e and havenoduiugh tnehmpoaedopioyups thierdogmnaicuayverdicttinfadmhatten of
uichvais mmportaney.
Tof thestuite ofmany, mmongm aye otherecauss,hwhas ul htethoeeaene and findifeorecse irth whichttheMohammedaonureligiio hasoregared.eThhe kndolnegdt andpdmiorutionofd thepremrknibl civilizansios whichIslao,r partcdularlybbefor theMmonoae iunliai n, andatrtaiee,y amsppeduiaod od Itale fomt the
timf of theCrusadvre.Thiassympeahys has fstveendbly theh lf-Mohammedaong everpmeng of cimeIItataon piincey,bayddiliae,aand eovin on mpim fon the xdistinfChuaic,y andbyn onrstats comerciuay fintecouast, ith thnchaboess fr thfEaisdenl andSouttheneMent trranean.o It csafbheehownrthat iid the tiarteenth centuysttheIItataosgpr cgnrzred aeMohammedaoni daleoofnoiblnnes, digniit,s andpaidl,h
whichtthyeloevdd
odconneect irthtth mpesioe ofaeSulcan.oA Maomluke Sulcanhias com illy omsat; ft ayenaome sy mentione,sint s,tth naomeoofStladsi.sEovintthe Osm ali Turka,nwtoesede stuetkvhet nleonils here nliecrec, ghvettthe Iitataost illy
helfa frlugh,s andpyspencnibl aaccrdt irthtthmy has lloondyopioyae nos mpoasibtliite.
Thhe tueist and mstnccharaceetistclexprsesi ne of tisdureligiues findifeorecse s,tth faroousiaorys fr thfTtfeheRlina,e whichLsesionghhas pungri od thd moin oftisdNathae,yaafteriuttadgbweenal reaye ldo centuilsdelarihe,r trough
ithsiimere ervr,e is the’Huanred Ould Nnvels’ (nov. 12toes73),eaand mrheboldlyd isBcccrccio (Dbecmetron,e ,r nv. 3)n.Iim watse
onuagdt andin,
watscornler of th Ment trraneansiot hasffirst ldo andnneveebhe ndow;d mstnliaelly thecrigaialt ams uich oorsmlmin-spokeen than thetwosIItataonadaptatiioseeThheureligiues prisulanteoie whic,it rhstsy,naomllyDerso,n wllebds di uesedhleaheo in intistd idlrfssgiificaincef or tisl peiod.. Thssaome dearhisorpmnaee,f trougtinfadclumsascartcuisur,fian thefaroousprovmrbr of th ‘ tfehe woe havedrncrovadthhewoaldy,that ii,rMoarsd,Chetisy, ae,Mohammed.’.Ioftthe EmppehofForderick IIy,in, womt this aykineias sida-to haveorigaiaaee,f urelrly trough sos,hheprobbabldexprsesead hmtself irthmoors
ire.
Ideasg of trnstimeklnld hrseallso urrrengrif slaon Aaf thfhehigi,oof the ReOaissaine,h orwards the lose ofd thtfffnteenth centuy, LuigadPulct oofhereure adexamople of th stmhe mid,oof trough is the’Morgante Magigirc.’. Thsimaiginryywoaldeoof
whichhiusiaorystrreaseiasndivied,e as intallrtheotclpoemsyoifuomaanc,yii toaeChetistand andpyMohammedaonecmp.o Iifaaccrdaince irth hhe edievuay emppe,r th vicchoyf of theChetistand andtthefincaepr conilciai nl mmong thecombaehnas,whasatt nlenebly the baptismsoof thedefmnaee, slaoitesd, and theImprovisaaorty,iwhoparcedvdd Pulct iid the rreapmeng ofthhsedsubjectsy,mmust havemhdre fehsunse of tiasiaock iiniiwety.IntwhasPulct’s,obbject osparodly his ordecsesoese, partcdularly thnihoetl mmong thmd, and tistthddohsmbly thnfivocatiiosy oofGoe,eChetisy, ae, th Madonnay, irth whicheauchchnaoebegins;g and
isiild oerecl earlybly thnsuddtfd onvtrsi ns, andbaptismi,r th uatten ssenselesnnesy of which must have stuckneovuys
reaereoro baeve.. This ridticunylrelashimd urothe od thd onfsesi ne oftiis airth intthe relnctvcegfh onesy ofaildpreligiia,e
whichfa ity, no itrstanionghies profsesi ne oforotodoxy, rhstsr in ao esvntciarly thiistclbaidsn.Iim a othespoaih,f oos,hhede partd idlale fomt mdireval concvpttioss.Thhe alttentovlve inn pat centuilsd hrs:eChetistan,hoer lsesPpgaa and Mohammedao;forotodoxebwilhvrreoro beeiti.dPulct drhwseadsicctur of the GiaensMvaguatt,iwh, disoregarving auch andevvuys rliigii,yjoviiarly onfsesssgthoevvuys fome of ine andssentuaiit,y andoirlyre ervrs so hmtself hhe eeie ofhavlinfnneveebrokeenfairt. Pperhaps thn
oety fintndwe,nto akeescim tving of tis–iinhiis la–h ihstnm n cpe,r pristibym-to havelead hmyii tovirtuoouspeahsrblyMorgante,t butthnso in goct ired,oofcrisownr rretion,eanndin,tth nexthchnaoebrrough hmy toae ootclend.sMvaguatt,tasgbweenbrrough frwharyasyhe po ofofsPulct’s, fivoaiit;t butthnias eedeedtto oomlett, thn
icctur of the oetuysoof
th fffnteenth centuyy.Intwhas natura,that itolhcoulrscim tvurempresect intgpoterquedspoptrti ns,tth figturooofsafuntarnd egoctsm,yiisrestibet toaal erstublshedlrcun,r andyene irthanprenaenfhfehonor ibl welkine lrfa..Iim othespoemsysvntcmsena huremungri od thd moinesoofgiaens,f fendsy,infidlasy, ae,MohammedaosyiwhichnosChetistandkniugh woould vcentuefto,uattee.
Aetiqurilfexercirsndsafinfaurance fraa otheskiandthaee taneoofIslao,r and tist nt toroughistd
rliigii,ywthichwhas but oohmuichlikeetwhe Ca tpltirsomofd tisl peiode, but toroughistdphilosopht. Aenilntn lievrectur,h nwnurespetvefas,scim tvingiincomartbpl,yiisfull of the vicchoyf ofphilosopht,oveo reliigiues prdiatio. Aeeeanelesynumbter oy sy cpmet and fagpmenns ofsy cpmet hrse uddtfllympreseceedtto thsIItataon mlnd,d nothascurgisirtlsrorn evnt so beesrie,s butalmosns ith
thn oinorita,ofddogmns,
whichtade nwn so bepr coniledlrattherttaee ddicrimiinced..Iimn earlyallethhsedvargiuesopini net anddocstiilsoae certainklnld ofbwilhft inGioo has mpilhd;d but akeenaltoghethedtthyo forredsadmarkedh ontrastgttothheChetistandfairttinfadDdviie g everpmeng oof thewoald.eAinetthace hasnne,ceuntta,queetiio, which mdireval
thrlogy hhdes rivmilinfvaaie tosolve,s and which nwnurgeatalfdemandvdd aa aswver fomt thewisorom of theaenilntsy,naomll,ntthfurulai nloof Ppooiiwencettothhe fehorom rsnncsesiite ofthhehumhan wll.. on
oiivh
thn hhiaorymofd tislqueetiio eovin sperfieciarly fomt the ouarteenth centuys iowaedts,woouldfsquior a hhoe,volbmr.oA ewnhiensm uusthhrse uoficee. Ift estakeeDante, andt s, on mpoerrilsdhas oiiwenc,hweoshaallfind hane aanilntnphilosopht,ffirst aome i odcontaect irthIItataonllfmf is the oam which olveendthhemosnsmarkedh ontrastgttoChetistanityy,that iid oe eaye,E icturaatsmy.Thhewrit igsdof,E
ictuus here nlloinhe ppe ervrd,r
and evnt theth lose ofdeth llastcuayagdt d oereoeslnesy ne-idide, oncvpttiottadgbween orrmed oftisl hilosopht. Nneverthelesy,that phasly ofE icturaatsmtiwhich andbhestuiicad inLunor iou,t ande ppeciarlyaihhoCicero,yiisqurise uoficilnan oe akeemhnefamiuiaod irthangodelesy uolveres.. on hat xtretstislt auckine
snacttuablyuindretoh e, and
whethertth naomeoofthheproblemnaic Grlek sigdt has nctrattherae atch oarf fr themultituid,rint s,h rdyttosay.eInt s,probbabsethat rhly DomtnicandIiquiosai nsausdtistigtaisnt ea woe could notbhearecthnybdyah mrheddfinhthsaacuslctio..Ien the asryoof cvpttcuobornebbefor the timf hasripl,h
wromintwhasyeneh rdytto onviac,oofsoosaives beeitial uatteaincey,ae mdheantedegfeheoofluxurgiuesllvlinfmayo have uoficend oe provokretwhechtrgen.Tthewwond syusend in tiis onvtettioalessensebyy Giovaeni Villaeiy, thnethe xmlmins,tth FFloretiie firhsg fr1115, and 1117yasyheDdviie judgspmeng no beesrie,s mmong othes, ‘oin th luxurgiues andgluatoniuesssac,oofE
icturaas.’. Thsstmhe oiivesslawsofrManfrrd,r ‘Hhisllfmf asyE icturaa,s sincehvebwilhvredneeithen inGioe,norf is the Sminas,s butoirlyaiebodillypleeasur.’. Dante, ppeaas siild oerecl earlyin,tth nienth andteenth hnaos,oof the ‘Infsrno.’. Taut trrlibl, feuys ieuld cveeve, irthh lf-oppogda smbs,f fomtwwhichiasuendcrieshoofhoppelesyhgcnls, amsppeoplnebly thetwos greae claseuoofr toses womt th Chuaicetadgvaeqdlshdeffonexmelund is the tiarteenth centuyn.Tthenne, hrseheeeitius whooppoarad th Chuaicebyy dilbheantalfsprrealinf alleedocstiil;y thecithen hrseE icturaase, and thire iosagtaisnt
hh Chuaicelalyin,tthire generamddi posai n, which hassummedhupn in thebeilhftthat rhlyscou dihs, ith
thnbldys.Thhe Chuaiceias,weall waref tpthethismome dcstiil,siftintgminedtgpound,dmusnt bhe mrheruiniues totheraoinorita, thanmall thet auckins,oof the ManhicamsashhandPeaheiils,s sinceist ooodawwayaildpres i fonwere fintefeorecse in themffaiesloo mene(faheodeaote.Thmtd thn eaosyiwhich lheyusend inthenstrugglls hereparcisrllywtauttadndrivmilthhemosns gffntdenaisurseto,unbeilhft andddsptareias,wtmtdshe naturalys could nct thesselfadmire. Dante’seloa tving ofE
ictuus,soeroofwtat,hey ooodroebestisl dcstiil,s has certaillyssincrd.fThhepoei,oof thellfmftto oome could notbout detssnt hh iwerireoofimmportaiit;t andpywoaldeneeithenmhdrenorfrcunndbly Gioe,no elesy than thevulgar ubjecsdifdelathnlyllfme
whichtthesy cpm aappeareftto oounenaanc,y could notboutbhefitsensrlyrepugnaengttoas natturelikeehdsn. ButifnwWellood losei,t es finetwatn certaindocstiilso oof theaenilntsnmhdre evnt no imdsafimprsesi ne whichffocvd rhhh
biubliramdocstiileoof theDdviie g everpmengri od thdbackgpound,unelesy, finene,sintwhashiisownrrefleactio,y thnfifaurance fropini nettthaf eprewllnt,, arloa tving fr theiajuisine tatfss aed to,rubsethias iwold, which hdre imdgivetupn thebeilhftiifarsppecialPpooiiwenceHias Gioolehvesnmall thedetmils,oof theiwold’seg everpmengttoasdeputly, Fortune,nwtoesesoleewworeit iid oechtagdt andchtagdt gaintallrelathnly tiina,e(nd woe an disoregarf theiail igsdoo meneiafunaltteaibet bretituid. Nneverthelesy,Dante,dohsm nctf ora momrestfailstoeiaidsrt in themooranurescns atlnitg ofman;ehvebwilhvre inn fehs wll.. thebeilhft is the fehorom of theiwll,fian the ppdularssense ofthhe oars,ghhas al lawoeprewineen inWeisdenl ouuntiesn Aafmall timesmhog hvetbweenheuld reescns aleo fon thieeacttioe,fae trough tiisffehorom hrseadmhatten of couast.. the asryias othewist, ith
thnreliigiues andphilosophtcuay ddcstiil,s whichlhboessuindrg theddifticuit ofhaam nizring thenatture oof thewiild ith thnlhwseofs th uolvereseatse
rgen.Wryhhavewwrwg oddoe irthaequeetiio ofmoereoeslnesy, whichevtryemooraneetimantemusnttakee nthoaaccuety.Dante,ist nt hhorly feceffrom tose strlogtcuay spernsitriosyiwhichiilumincad thnnoriz ne oftiisetime irthdecvpttave llugh,s but thlddnn nt hiindrhhimd fromrsssingtodpywoaahysconcvpttioe of humhannattur. ‘ Thsstaes,’ehve akeashiisMvaco Lambtetesaly (‘Purgaaorto,’exviy,73),e’tThsstaesdgivettth firis mmulsestodyouar acttioe,f butaeliugh tsggivmilyoustodk nwngfh s andevi ,e and fehsiwll,f wwhic,siftintendsur, trns raintintistdfiris bhatl igsd ith thncehvena,e tylmngin gmins,tth hhoe,vicchoys,iftintbheweallnurtturd.’. Oothesymiugh slek tth necsesiitewwhichlnnulund humhanffehorominean other sowter than thestaes,d but thequeetiio whashwencforotepneoppo and filvit ibl momseSodfar sdrntwhasaequeetiio fr the choolsnfon thn pursuie ofisolhaed hlikhes, ae
rreapmengbbloinsy od thdhhiaortaoe of hilosopht. Butieasmsuch isintentveendri od thd onsnciuennesy ofae indrhppubli,rint s,necsesauys foeusr tosalyaffewn oarseorespetkingite. Thheiouarteenth centuys hascchieldretimularve,bly thewrit igsdof,hoCicero,yiwh, trougtinf aet ao cleacti,ryec, bly his hbieyoof rttlinf oaith thnopini netofddiifeorets chools,f without ootingtodpy deistiod brtwween hsm,fexercirsnd thnfifaurance fradskvpttc. Nnxctintimmportanee aimeSgencay, ae, th fewn oarssoofAetisotuny whichtadgbweenttsasliaee ri odLetii.. Thsimmedirtenffuing ofthhsedstuiics,whas the apaciitytto refleac,onh greaeiubjectsy,ifs nctintdvireceoppoaictiod to teraoinorita, oof theChuaic,y
t,aal evmenseiindp nleotalf ofite.
Ien thecouast,ofd thtfffnteenth centuyfthhe oarssoofaetiqurilfiwere ddi cvereen
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