to cause great alarm. A Jerseyman, who had expressed a wish that the wad of a cannon, fired as a salute to the President, had hit him on the rear bulge of his breeches, was fined $100. Matthew Lyon of Vermont, while canvassing for reelection to Congress, charged the President with “unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and a selfish avarice.” This language cost him four months in jail and a fine of $1000. But in general the law did not repress the tendencies at which it was aimed but merely increased them.
The Republicans, too weak to make an effective stand in Congress, tried to interpose state authority. Jefferson drafted the Kentucky Resolutions, adopted by the state legislature in November, 1798. They hold that the Constitution is a compact to which the States are parties, and that “each party has an equal right to judge for itself as well of infractions as of the mode and measure of redress.” The alien and sedition laws were denounced, and steps were proposed by which protesting States “will concur in declaring these Acts void and of no force, and will each take measures of its own for providing that neither these Acts, nor any others of the general Government, not plainly and intentionally authorized by the Constitution, shall be exercised within their respective territories.” The Virginia Resolutions, adopted in December, 1798, were drafted by Madison. They view “the powers of the federal Government as resulting from the compact to which the States are parties,” and declare that, if those powers are exceeded, the States “have the right and are in duty bound to interpose.” This doctrine was a vial of woe to American politics until it was cast down and shattered on the battlefield of civil war. It was invented for a partisan purpose, and yet was entirely unnecessary for that purpose.
The Federalist party as then conducted was the exponent of a theory of government that was everywhere decaying. The alien and sedition laws were condemned and discarded by the forces of national politics, and state action was as futile in effect as it was mischievous in principle. It diverted the issue in a way that might have ultimately turned to the advantage of the Federalist party, had it possessed the usual power of adaptation to circumstances. After all, there was no reason inherent in the nature of that party why it should not have perpetuated its organization and repaired its fortunes by learning how to derive authority from public opinion. The needed transformation of character would have been no greater than has often been accomplished in party history. Indeed, there is something abnormal in the complete prostration and eventual extinction of the Federalist party; and the explanation is to be found in the extraordinary character of Adams’s administration. It gave such prominence and energy to individual aims and interests that the party was rent to pieces by them.
In communicating the X.Y.Z. dispatches to Congress, Adams declared: “I will never send another Minister to France without assurance that he will be received, respected, and honored, as the representative of a great, free, powerful, and independent nation.” But on receiving an authentic though roundabout intimation that a new mission would have a friendly reception, he concluded to dispense with direct assurances, and, without consulting his Cabinet, sent a message to the Senate on February 18, 1799, nominating Murray, then American Minister to Holland, to be Minister to France. This unexpected action stunned the Federalists and delighted the Republicans as it endorsed the position they had always taken that war talk was folly and that France was ready to be friendly if America would treat her fairly. “Had the foulest heart and the ablest head in the world,” wrote Senator Sedgwick to Hamilton, “been permitted to select the most embarrassing and ruinous measure, perhaps it would have been precisely the one which has been adopted.” Hamilton advised that “the measure must go into effect with the additional idea of a commission of three.” The committee of the Senate to whom the nomination was referred made a call upon Adams to inquire his reasons. According to Adams’s own account, they informed him that a commission would be more satisfactory to the Senate and to the public. According to Secretary Pickering, Adams was asked to withdraw the nomination and refused, but a few days later, on hearing that the committee intended to report against confirmation, he sent in a message nominating Chief Justice Ellsworth and Patrick Henry, together with Murray, as envoys extraordinary. The Senate, much to Adams’s satisfaction, promptly confirmed the nominations, but this was because Hamilton’s influence had smoothed the way. Patrick Henry declined, and Governor Davie of North Carolina was substituted. By the time this mission reached France, Napoleon Bonaparte was in power and the envoys were able to make an acceptable settlement of the questions at issue between the two countries. The event came too late to be of service to Adams in his campaign for reelection, but it was intensely gratifying to his self-esteem.
Some feelers were put forth to ascertain whether Washington could not be induced to be a candidate again, but the idea had hardly developed before all hopes in that quarter were abruptly dashed by his death on December 14, 1799, from a badly treated attack of quinsy. Efforts to substitute some other candidate for Adams proved unavailing, as New England still clung to him on sectional grounds. News of these efforts of course reached Adams and increased his bitterness against Hamilton, whom he regarded as chiefly responsible for them. Adams had a deep spite against members of his Cabinet for the way in which they had foiled him about Hamilton’s commission, but for his own convenience in routine matters he had retained them, although debarring them from his confidence. In the spring of 1800 he decided to rid himself of men whom he regarded as “Hamilton’s spies.” The first to fall was McHenry, whose resignation was demanded on May 5, 1800, after an interview in which–according to McHenry–Adams reproached him with having “biased General Washington to place Hamilton in his list of major-generals before Knox.” Pickering refused to resign, and he was dismissed from office on May 12. John Marshall became the Secretary of State, and Samuel Dexter of Massachusetts, Secretary of War. Wolcott retained the Treasury portfolio until the end of the year, when he resigned of his own motion.
The events of the summer of 1800 completed the ruin of the Federalist party. That Adams should have been so indifferent to the good will of his party at a time when he was a candidate for reelection is a remarkable circumstance. A common report among the Federalists was that he was no longer entirely sane. A more likely supposition was that he was influenced by some of the Republican leaders and counted on their political support. In biographies of Gerry it is claimed that he was able to accomplish important results through his influence with Adams. At any rate, Adams gave unrestrained expression to his feelings against Hamilton, and finally Hamilton was aroused to action. On August 1, 1800, he wrote to Adams demanding whether it was true that Adams had “asserted the existence of a British faction in this country” of which Hamilton himself was said to be a leader. Adams did not reply. Hamilton waited until October 1, and then wrote again, affirming “that by whomsoever a charge of the kind mentioned in my former letter, may, at any time, have been made or insinuated against me, it is a base, wicked, and cruel calumny; destitute even of a plausible pretext, to excuse the folly, or mask the depravity which must have dictated it.”
Hamilton, always sensitive to imputations upon his honor, was not satisfied to allow the matter to rest there. He wrote a detailed account of his relations with Adams, involving an examination of Adams’s public conduct and character, which he privately circulated among leading Federalists. It is an able paper, fully displaying Hamilton’s power of combining force of argument with dignity of language, but although exhibiting Adams as unfit for his office it advised support of his candidacy. Burr obtained a copy and made such use of parts of it that Hamilton himself had to publish it in full.
In this election the candidate associated with Adams by the Federalists was Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina. Though one Adams elector in Rhode Island cut Pinckney, he would still have been elected had the electoral votes of his own State been cast for him as they had been for Thomas Pinckney, four years before; but South Carolina now voted solidly for both Republican candidates. The result of the election was a tie between Jefferson and Burr, each receiving 73 votes, while Adams received 65 and Pinckney 64. The election was thus thrown into the House, where some of the Federalists entered into an intrigue to give Burr the Presidency instead of Jefferson, but this scheme was defeated largely through Hamilton’s influence. He wrote: “If there be a man in this world I ought to hate, it is Jefferson. With Burr I have always been personally well. But the public good must be paramount to every private consideration.”
The result of the election was a terrible blow to Adams. His vanity was so hurt that he could not bear to be present at the installation of his successor, and after working almost to the stroke of midnight signing appointments to office for the defeated Federalists, he drove away from Washington in the early morning before the inauguration ceremonies began. Eventually he soothed his self-esteem by associating his own trials and misfortunes with those endured by classical heroes. He wrote that Washington, Hamilton, and Pinckney formed a triumvirate like that of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, and “that Cicero was not sacrificed to the vengeance of Antony more egregiously than John Adams was to the unbridled and unbounded ambition of Alexander Hamilton in the American triumvirate.”
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Abundant materials are available for the period covered by this work. Chief among them are the Annals of Congress, the State Papers, and the writings of statesmen to be found in any library index under their names. The style maintained by Washington early became a subject of party controversy and to this may be attributed a noticeable variation in accounts given by different authors. For instance, Washington Irving, who as a child witnessed the first inauguration parade, says in his _Life of Washington_ that the President’s coach “was drawn by a single pair of horses.” But the detailed account given in the _New York Packet_ of May 1, 1789, the day after the ceremony, says that “the President joined the procession in his carriage and four.” The following authorities may be consulted on the point:
B.J. Lossing, article in _The Independent_, vol. xli, April 25, 1889.
Martha J. Lamb, article in _Magazine of American History_, vol. xx, December, 1888.
For details of official etiquette during Washington’s administration, the following may be consulted:
GEORGE WASHINGTON, _Diary_, from 1789 to 1791. Edited by B.J. Lossing (1860).
WILLIAM MACLAY, _Journal_, 1789-1791 (1890).
GEORGE W. P. CUSTIS, _Memoirs of Washington_ (1859).
JAMES G. WILSON, _The Memorial History of New York_ (1893).
ANNE HOLLINGSWORTH WHARTON, _Martha Washington_ (1897).
Works of special importance for their documentary matter and for their exhibition of the personal aspect of events are:
J. C. HAMILTON, _History of the Republic of the United States_, 7 vols. (1860).
H. S. RANDALL, _Life of Thomas Jefferson_, 3 vols. (1858).
GEORGE GIBBS, _Administrations of Washington and John Adams_, 2 vols. (1846).
Some economic aspects of the struggle over Hamilton’s financial measures are exhibited by:
CHARLES A. BEARD, _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_ (1915).
New light has been cast upon Genet’s mission, causing a great change in estimates of his character and activities, by materials drawn from the French archives by Professor F.J. Turner, and presented in the following articles:
“The Origin of Genet’s Projected Attack on Louisiana and the Floridas,” _American Historical Review_, vol. iii.
“The Policy of France toward the Mississippi Valley,” _American Historical Review_, vol. x.
“The Diplomatic Contest for the Mississippi Valley,” _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. xciii.
Further references will be found appended to the articles on _Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, Jay_, and _John Adams_ in _The Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 11th Edition.
INDEX
Adams, John, favors making government impressive through ceremony, attitude toward Genet affair, reelected Vice-president, elected President, personal characteristics, relations with Jefferson, Cabinet, defeat at election of 1800,
Addison, Alexander, Judge,
Algiers, relations with, treaty with,
Alien and Sedition laws,
Ames, Fisher, of Massachusetts,
Bacri, the Jew,
Barclay, Thomas,
Baldwin, Abraham, of Georgia,
Barlow, Joel,
Barry, John, Captain,
Beard, C.A., _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_, Benson, Egbert, of New York,
Boudinot, Elias, of New Jersey,
Bradford, William, of Rhode Island,
Burke, Edanus, of South Carolina,
Burr, Aaron,
Butler, Pierce, of South Carolina,
Cabinet, President’s, a development after Washington’s administration, status of,
Campbell, William, Major,
Carmichael, William,
Church, Edward, U. S. consul at Lisbon,
Clark, Abraham, of New Jersey,
Clark, George Rogers,
Clinton, George, of New York,
_Constellation_, The, ship,
_Constitution_, The, ship,
Constitutional amendments adopted,
_Daily Advertizer_,
_Dauphin_, The, ship,
Dayton, Jonathan, of New Jersey,
Dexter, Samuel, of Massachusetts,
District of Columbia, exact site to be selected by the President,
Ellsworth, Oliver, of Connecticut,
Federal Hall,
_Federalist_,
Federalist party,
Finance, National, Tariff bill, debt of United States (1790), Assumption bill, national bank established, mint established,
Fishbourn, Benjamin,
Fitzsimmons, Thomas, of Pennsylvania,
France, relations with United States, treaties of 1778, representation in United States, special mission to, treaties abrogated (1798), maritime troubles with, second mission to,
Fraunces, A.G.,
Freneau, Philip, editor of _National Gazette_,
Genet, Edmond, appointed French minister to United States; a trained diplomatist, audacious mission, reception in United States, policy toward Louisiana, argues for treaty rights, public opinion for, arrest by French Government, success, United States becomes his asylum, bibliography,
Germantown, Proposal to place capital at,
Gerry, Elbridge, of Massachusetts,
Giles, W.B., of Virginia,
_Grange_, The, ship,
Grayson, William, of Virginia,
Great Britain, lays down contraband regulations, retains Western posts in America, treaty with (1795),
Greenville, Treaty of (1795),
Gwinnett, Button,
_Hail Columbia_,
Hamilton, Alexander, personal appearance, aid in finance sought by Washington, advises Washington as to deportment, appointed Secretary of Treasury, rivalry between Madison and, opinion as to establishment of courts, report to Congress (1790), stand on the question of security of transfer, interest in site for national capital, report on manufactures, appreciation of, author of interrogatories to the cabinet (1793), opinion on French treaty obligations; stands against Jefferson, calmness in regard to Genet affair, “Pacificus,”, “No Jacobin,”, resigns as Secretary of Treasury (1793), party warfare against, requests a Treasury investigation, opinion as to enforcing law, remains trusted adviser, aids Wolcott in preparing scheme of taxation, appointed major-general, relations with Adams, bibliography,
Hammond, George, British minister to United States,
Hancock, John,
Harmar, Josiah, Lieutenant-Colonel,
Hazard, Ebenezer, Postmaster-General,
Henry, Patrick,
Humphreys, David, Colonel,
Indian troubles in the West,
Jackson, Andrew,
Jackson, James, of Georgia,
Jay, John, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, appointed envoy extraordinary to Great Britain (1794), mission to England, elected Governor of New York,
Jay treaty, terms of, agitation over, French attitude toward,
Jefferson, Thomas, appointed Secretary of State, attitude on question of assumption of state debts, importance of public service, report on the Algerine question, as minister to Paris, opinion on French treaty obligations, “The Anas,” disturbs the administration, resigns as Secretary of State (1793), for the principle “free ships, free goods,” opponent of Hamilton, drafts Kentucky Resolutions (1798), elected President, bibliography,
Johnson, Thomas, of Maryland,
Jones, John Paul, Admiral,
Judiciary, Establishment of the,
Kentucky Resolutions,
Knox, Henry, Secretary of War since 1785, Secretary of War and of the Navy, submits plan for militia, supports Hamilton in question of treaty obligations, recommended as major-general by Washington, question of precedence of rank, declines appointment,
_La Carmagnole_, ship,
_L’Ambuscade_, ship,
_L’Ami de la Point a Petre_, ship,
_La Montagne_, ship,
_L’Amour de la Liberte_, ship,
_La Vengeance_, ship,
_Le Cassius_, ship,
_Le Citoyen Genet_, ship,
Lee, Arthur,
Lee, Charles, of Virginia,
Lee, R.H., of Virginia,
l’Enfant, P.C.,
_Le Petit Democrate_, ship,
_L’Esperance_, ship,
_Le Vainqueur de Bastille_, ship,
_Little Sarah_, ship,
Livermore, Samuel, of New Hampshire,
Livingston, Walter,
Louisiana territory,
McGillivray, Alexander, Head chief of the Creeks,
McHenry, James, of Maryland,
McIntosh, Lachlan,
Maclay, William, of Pennsylvania, Diary of,
Madison, James, cooperates with Hamilton in government organization, personal appearance, introduces scheme for raising revenue, upholds President’s power of removal, acts as advisor to Washington, opinion as to system of federal courts, stand on question of security of transfer, opinion on creation of a navy, “Helvidius,” attitude toward non-intercourse, drafts Virginia Resolutions (1798),
Marshall, John, opinion on neutrality of United States (1793), appointed commissioner to France, becomes Secretary of State,
Military preparedness, Policy of,
Monroe, James,
Morris, Gouverneur,
Morris, Robert,
Moultrie, William, General,
Murray, W.V., Minister to Holland,
Napoleon Bonaparte,
_National Gazette_,
Naval policy of the United States,
Neutrality, Question of (1793),
New York, desires to be capital of nation, Washington’s home in,
Nicholas, W.C., of Virginia,
Non-intercourse bill,
North Carolina admitted to the Union (1789),
O’Brien Richard, Captain,
O’Fallon, James, Dr.,
Osgood, Samuel, Postmaster-General,
Page, John, of Virginia,
Paine, Thomas,
Paterson, William, of New Jersey,
Philadelphia club,
Pickering, Timothy of Massachusetts,
Pinckney, C.C.,
Pinckney, Thomas,
President of the United States, social position and duties, official title, power of removal by,
Putnam, Rufus, General,
Randolph, Edmund, appointed Attorney-General, opinion on question of French treaty obligations, divides influence between factions in cabinet, transferred to State Department, letter to Washington, opinion as to enforcing law, applies to French minister for funds, retires,
Republican party,
Residence act,
Rhode Island admitted to the Union (1790),
St. Clair, Arthur, General,
_Sans Pareil_, ship,
Sedgwick, Theodore, of Massachusetts,
Senate, privy council function of,
Short, William,
Smith, Samuel, of Maryland,
Smith, William, of South Carolina,
Spain, Treaty with (1795),
Stone, M.J., of Maryland,
Story, Joseph, Justice,
Talleyrand,
Tariff, _see_ Finance.
Taylor, John,
Treasury Department, established by Congress, rights and duties of Secretary defined, Secretary’s report,
Trenton, proposal to place capital at,
Truxtun, Thomas, Captain,
_United States_, The, ship
Virginia Resolutions
Wadsworth, Jeremiah, of Connecticut
War Department, Opposition to
Washington, George, reluctant to reassume public responsibilities, installed as President (1789), personal characteristics; his magnificence, his levees; first message to Congress; first cabinet, message to Senate (1789), differences with the Senate, tours, church-going habits, receives news of St. Clair’s defeat, concern about Genet affair, opinion as to validity of French treaty, dependence upon Hamilton, address of Dec. 3, 1793, reelected President, party spirit against, Farewell Address (1796), death (1799), bibliography,
Washington, Martha, arrival in New York, her entertainments
Wayne, Anthony, General
West Indies, trade with
Whiskey insurrection,
White, Alexander, of Virginia
Willett, Marinus, Colonel
Wolcott, Oliver, of Connecticut
“X.Y.Z.” dispatches